UC-NRLF 


B      3 


\RPE| 


1 

^EI^S 


Guide. 


••*     • 


C  It 


'  .*. 


-^^' 


/1 


/ 


J 


-70K 


^ 


^J^ 


.(J'^ 


If^A/^y^ 


p  i'- 


% 


I A 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/carpentersbuildeOOgoulrich 


THE 


CARPENTER'S  AND  BUILDER'S 


ASSISTANT,      • 


AND 


Wood  Worker's 

GUIDE. 

BY    LUCIUS    D.    GOULD, 

Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 


NE  W    YORK: 

-A..  J-.  :o I o i^ nsr E ij Hi  cfe?  oo 

Architectural  Book  Publishers, 
1874. 


EIBRARY 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1874,  by 

LUCIUS    D.    GOULD, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


DAILY  ADVERTISER  PRINT, 
Newark,  New  Jersey. 


PREFACE. 


I 


Several   3^ears   have    elapsed  since  I  first    published  the  House 
Carpenter's  Assistant,  which  met  with  a  ready  sale  of  some  seven- 
teen hundred   copies,   but  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  ihe  pub 
lisher  the  work  is  now  out  of  print. 

The  object  of  the  author  is  to  revise  the  former  work  by  omitting 
the  treaties  on  mathematical  instruments,  to  make  room  for  additional 
matter  that  had  been  overlooked  in  the  former  work,  in  order  to  fur- 
nish house  carpenters  and  builders  with  a  new  and  easy  system  of 
lines  founded  on  geometrical  principles  for  framing  the  most  difficult 
roofs ;  for  cutting  every  description  of  joints  and  for  linding  the  sec- 
tions of  angular  pieces  at  any  point  from  a  horizontal  to  a  'perpen- 
dicular, so  that  their  sides  shall  be  in  the  plane  of  the  sides  they  are 
connected  with ;  for  finding  the  form  of  the  raking  mould,  for  a 
gable,  to  intersect  with  the  horizontal  mould  at  any  angle  diverging 
from  a  straight  line ;  the  mitreing  of  circular  mouldings;  the  rela- 
tive sizes  of  timbers  framed  to  support  a  given  weight:  to  the  mitre- 
ing of  planes  oblique  to  the  base  at  any  angle. 

Together  with  these  rules,  the  author  also  presents  tables  of  the 
weight  and  cohesive  strength  of  the  different  materials  used  in  the 
construction-  of  buildings  as  well  as  the  weight  required  to  crush  said 
materials,  with  a  treatise  on  the  adhesion  of  nails,  screws,  iron  pins 
and  glue.  Also  an  easy  system  of  stair  railing  for  straight  and 
platform  stairs,  which  will  enable  carpenters  to  finish  and  complete 
a  dwelling  without  the  assistance  of  a  professional  stair  builder. 

And  to  all  this  is  added  a  practical  and  mathematical  demonstra- 
tion of  finding  the  circumference  and  squaring  the  circle  when  the 
diameter  is  given. 

There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  a  work  of  this  kind  is  needed  by 
architects  and  builders,  and  especially  by  carpenters  and  workmen 
who  are  inexperienced  in  the  different  kinds  of  labor  which  they  are 


PREFACE. 


called  upon  to  perform.  Many  a  journeyman  carpenter  has  found 
himself  suddenly  thrown  out  of  employment  simply  because  he  was 
ignorant  of  the  rules  by  which  he  could  perform  some  required  task. 
It  is  rather  for  the  benefit  of  such  than  for  the  experienced  work- 
men, that  this  volume  is  designed,  and  should  it  be  the  means  of 
promoting  their  interest  or  inciting  them  to  a  study  of  the  noble 
science  and  art  of  construction,  the  author  will  feel  well  compensated 
for  his  labor. 

It  is  but  due  to  acknowledge  that  we  have  consulted  the  valuable 
works  of  Thomas  Tredgold,  for  the  articles  on  the  strength  and 
weight  of  materials,  also  to  Mr.  Honetus  M.  Albee,  a  skillful  and 
experienced  stair-builder  for  the  method  of  finding  the  distances  to 
kerf  the  back  string  for  circular  stairs. 


Plate    1. 


Fiji.  1. 


H 


Fig.  4. 
n 


Y 


Fig 

5.  /   y^ 

'■^^- 

^-^.- 

U- 

Fig.  6 

L  A  K  M 


\^      Vx§.  7. 

'\A 


P 


:j 


i 

i 

Fi6.3 

Y 

A 

A 

\/ 

{ 

4 

H 

4 

H 

1 

CARPENTRY. 

Carpentry  is  the  art  of  cutting  and  jointing  timbers  in  the 
construction  of  buildings. 

To  cut  timbers  and  adapt  them  to  their  various  situations, 
BO  that  one  of  the  sides  of  every  piece  shall  be  arranged  ac- 
cording to  a  given  plane  or  surface  shown  in  the  designs  of 
the  architect,  is  a  department  of  carpentry  which  requires  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  finding  of  sections  of  solids,  their 
coverings  and  the  various  methods  of  connecting  timbers,  etc. 

The  art  of  combining  pieces  of  timber  to  increase  their 
strength  and  firmness,  is  called  framing. 

The  form  of  a  frame  should  be  adapted  to  the  nature  of 
the  load  which  it  is  designed  to  carry. 

In  carpentry,  the  load  is  usually  distributed  over  the  whole 
length  of  the  framing,  but  it  is  generally  supported  from  point 
to  point,  by  short  beams  or  joists. 

First,  let  us  consider  a  case  where  the  load  is  collected  at 
one  point  of  the  frame,  and  in  order  that  the  advantage  of 
framing  may  be  more  obvious,  let  us  suppose  all  the  parts 
of  a  certain  piece  of  frame  work  to  be  cut  out  of  a  single 
beam,  which  in  a  solid  mass,  would  be  too  weak  for  the 
purpose. 

PLATE   1. 


Let  Fig.  1  be  a  piece  of  timber  cut  in  the  various  directions 
indicated  by  the  lines  passing  through  it  ;^and  let  the  tri- 
angular pieces  shown  at  E  and  F  be  removed,  then  raise  the 
pieces  A  E  and  A  F  till  they  make  close  joints  at  E  and  F, 
and  increase  their  lengths  till  they  form  a  frame  or  truss,  as 
represented  at  Fig.  2.  A  small  rod  of  iron  with  suitable  nuts, 
will  be  required  to  support  the  centre  of  the  tie,  as  seen  in 


CARPENTliY. 


the  drawing.  If  the  depth  of  the  frame  at  the  middle  be 
double  the  depth  of  the  beam,  the  strength  of  the  frame  will 
be  a  little  more  than  eight  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  beam. 
If  the  depth  ot  the  frame  be  three  times  the  depth  of  the 
beam  as  represented  at  Fig.  2,  it  will  be  about  six  times  as 
strong  as  the  beam,  and  about  eighteen  times  as  firm,  that  is,  it 
will  bend  only  an  eighteenth  part  of  the  distance  which  the 
beam  would  bend  under  the  same  weight. 

To  render  the  strength  more  equal  and  to  obtain  two  points 
of  support,  there  ma)^  be  a  level  piece  of  timber  placed  be- 
tween the  inclining  ones,  as  shown  at  Fig  3  ;  but  if  a  greater 
weight  be  placed  at  G  than  at  H,  there  will  be  a  tendency 
to  spring  upwards  at  H  and  inwards  at  A,  which  may  be 
effectually  prevented  by  the  suspension  rod  A  A,  as  shown 
in  the  same  figure. 

It  now  remains  to  show  why  the  strength  of  a  piece  of 
timber  is  increased  by  forming  it  into  a  truss ;  and  to  have  a 
clear  conception  of  this  subject  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  the  science  of  carpentry. 

Let  ABC  Fig.  4  be  a  truss  to  support  a  weight  applied  at 
A.  It  is  evident  that  the  force  of  the  weight  wnll  tend  to 
spread  the  abutments  B  and  C,  and  the  nearer  we  make  the 
angle  AB  C  to  a  straight  line,  the  greater  will  be  the  pressure 
or  tendency  to  spread  or  increase  at  A.  On  the  contrary,  if 
the  height  be  increased  as  at  Fig.  5,  the  tendency  to  spread 
the  abutment  will  be  less. 

The  advantage  of  framing  timbers  together  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  strength  and  firmness  having  been  shown,  lei  us 
proceed  to  explain  how  the  strain  on  any  part  may  be 
measured. 

To  find  the  pressure  on  oblique  supports  or  parts  of  trusses, 
frames,  etc.  Let  A  B  Fig.  6  be  a  heavy  beam  supported  by 
two  posts  A  0  and  B  D,  placed  at  equal  distances  from  E, 
the  centre  of  the  beam.  The  pressure  on  each  post  will 
obviously  be  equal  to  half  the  weight  of  the  beam.  But  if 
the  posts  be  placed  obliquely  as  in  Fig.  7,  the  pressure  on 


CARPENTRY. 


each  post  will  be  increased  in  the  same  proportion  as  its 
length  is  increased,  the  height  A  C,  being  the  same  as  before ; 
that  is,  when  A  F  is  double  A  C,  the  pressure  on  the  post  in 
the  direction  of  its  length  is  double  the  half  weight  of  the 
beam.  Hence  it  is  very  easy  to  find  the  pressure  in  the 
direction  of  an  inclined  strut,  for  it  is  as  many  times  half 
the  weight  supported  as  A  C  is  contained  in  A  F.  Therefore, 
if  the  depth  A  C  of  a  truss  to  support  a  weight  of  two  tons 
be  only  one  foot,  and  A  F  be  ten  feet,  the  pressure  in  the 
direction  of  A  F  will  be  ten  tons. 

It  will  be  observed  that  when  the  beam  is  supported  by 
oblique  posts,  as  in  Fig.  7,  these  posts  will  slide  out  at  the 
bottom  and  together  at  the  top,  if  not  prevented  by  proper 
abutments.  The  force  with  which  the  foot  F  tends  to  slide 
out  is  to  half  the  weight  of  the  beam  A  B,  as  F  C  is  to  A  C. 
Therefore,  when  F  C  is  equal  to  A  C,  the  tendency  to  slide 
out  is  equal  to  half  the  weight  supported  ;  and  if  F  C  be  ten 
times  A  C,  the  tendency  to  spread  out  would  be  ten  times 
the  weight  supported.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  a  flat  truss 
requires  a  tie  of  immense  strength  to  prevent  it  from 
spreading.  If  a  flat  truss  produces  any  degree  of  stretching 
in  the  tie,  the  truss  must  obviously  settle,  and  by  settling  it 
becomes  flat  and  consequently  exerts  a  greater  strain.  In  a 
flat  truss,  therefore,  too  much  caution  cannot  be  used  in  fitting 
the  joints  and  choosing  good  materials. 


PROBLEMS 


PLATE  2. 

To  form  an  Ellipsis  hy  means  of  a  cord  : — Let  A  B 
(Figure  1)  be  the  longest  diameter  and  D  C  the  sliortest 
diameter  of  the  required  ellipse.  Make  C  F  and  C  G  equal 
to  E  B,  which  is  one-half  the  longest  diameter.  At  the 
points  G  and  F  place  pins,  around  the  pins  place  a  cord  so 
fastened  at  the  ends  that  it  shall  reach  around  the  points  C  F 
G  ;  place  your  pencil  inside  the  cord  and  describe  the  ellipsis. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  cord  to  an  even  tension. 

Figure  2. — A  side  of  a  Polygon  of  any  number  of  sides 
heing  given  to  describe  the  Polygon : — Let  A  B  C  be  a  line 
and  B  C  the  given  side  of  a  polygon  of  five  sides.  From 
B  as  a  centre,  with  B  C  as  a  radius,  describe  a  semi-circle 
and  divide  it  into  five  parts  ;  through  the  points  of  division 
1,  2,  draw  the  lines  B  D  and  B  E  indefinitely  ;  then  with  one 
point  of  the  compass  at  C,  w^ith  C  B  as  radius,  describe  the 
dotted  circle  B  D,  cutting  the  line  B  D  at  D ;  perpendicular 
to  B  C,  draw  the  line  C  E,  join  3,  1,  and  at  the  intersection 
of  the  lines  3,  1  and  C  E  will  be  the  centre  to  describe  the 
circle  BCD,  etc. ;  join  C  D,  etc.,  and  the  figure  will  be 
complete. 

FiouKE  3. — To  describe  the  false  ellipsis^  or  an  elliptical 
figure  hy  means  of  circular  arcs  : — Let  A  B  be  the  length 
and  C  D  the  breadth ;  join  B  D  through  the  centre  of  the 
line  E  B,  and  at  right  angles  to  B  D  draw  the  line  C  F 
indefinitely ;  then  at  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  dotted 
lines  will  be  found  the  points  to  describe  the  required  ellipsis. 

Figure  4. — To  inscribe  an  equilateral  triangle  in  a  given 
circle : — Through  the  centre  A,  draw  any  diameter  B  C  ;  from 
the  point  C  as  a  centre,  with  the  radius  C  A,  describe  tlie  arc 


Plato  2 


I-i^.l         P3 


Fid. 


PKOBLEMS. 


DAE;  join  B  D,  B  E  and  D  E,  then  D  B  E  is  the 
equilateral-triangle  required. 

Figure  5. — To  describe  a  regular  Octagon  from,  a  given 
square: — Draw  the  diagonal  A  B,  then  with  half  the  diagonal 
as  a  radius,  describe  from  each  of  the  four  angular  points  of 
the  square,  the  arcs  cutting  the  centre  and  sides  of  the  square. 
Join  the  points  of  intersection  and  the  required  octagon  is 
obtained. 

Figure  h.^-To  inscribe  a  Polygon  of  six  sides : — Describe 
the  circle  as  shown  from  the  points  A  B  with  the  same 
radius,  describe  the  arcs  within  the  circle.  Join  the  points 
of  intersection  by  the  chords  as  shown  and  the  required 
polygon  will  be  obtained. 


10  PROBLEMS. 


PLATE  3. 

Exhibits  a  plan  of  groin  arches,  designed  for  brick  or 
stone  materials,  resting  on  eight  piers,  which  are  represented 
by  the  letters  A  B  C,  etc. 

Figure  1 — On  the  line  A  11  of  the  lesser  opening  between 
two  adjacent  piers,  describe  the  semi-circle  A  G  H ;  divide 
the  arc  A  C  in  any  number  of  equal  parts  as  shown  ;  drop 
the  lines  from  the  points  on  the  arc,  at  i-ight  angles  to  A  G, 
cutting  the  diagonal  lines  I  K  in  the  points  1,  2,  3 ;  etc., 
from  the  points  thus  found  on  the  lines  I  K,  draw  the  perpen- 
dicular lines  1  1,  2  2,  etc.,  equal  to  those  shown  at  the  semi- 
circle A  G  H,  and  through  the  points  1,  2,  8,  etc.,  describe 
the  curve  lines  for  the  intersecting  ribs,  over  the  lines  I  K 
and  L  M  as  shown  on  the  plan. 

Figure  2 — Shows  a  method  of  forming  the  curves  tor  the 
intersecting  rib,  by  using  a  cord  as  shown  at  Fig.  1,  Plate  2. 


1 

1 

TABLE 

Showing  tlie  leno^tl 

1  of  Brace 

wlien   the 

run  is  given,  also      1 

the  length  of  run  when  the  Brace  is  given. 

i 

RUN. 

BRACK. 

BRACK. 

RUN. 

2  ft.           X  2  ft. 

2.8284 

2  ft. 

1.4142x1.4142 

1      2  ft.  3  in.  X  2  ft. 

3  in. 

3.1819 

2  ft.  3  in. 

1.5909  X  1.5909 

{      2  ft.  6  in.  X  2  ft. 

6  in. 

3.5749 

2  ft.  6  in. 

1.7879  X  1.7879 

1      2  ft.  9  in.  X  2  ft. 

9  in. 

3.8903 

2  ft.  9  in. 

1.9451  X  1.9451 

3  ft.           X  3  ft. 

4.2426 

3  ft. 

2.1213x2.1213 

i      3  ft.  3  in.  X  3  ft. 

3  in. 

4.5961 

3  ft.  3  in. 

2.2980  X  2.2980 

j      3  ft.  6  in.  X  3  ft. 

6  in. 

4.9497 

3  ft.  6  in. 

2.4748  X  2.4748         i 

3  ft.  9  in.  X  3  ft. 

9  in. 

5.3141 

3  ft.  9  in. 

2.6570x2.6570 

i      4  ft.           X  4  ft. 

5.6568 

4  ft. 

2.8784x2.8784 

1      4  ft.  3  in.  X  4  ft. 

3  in. 

6.0103 

4  ft.  3  in. 

3.0051x3.0051 

I      4  ft.  6  in.  X  4  ft. 

6  in. 

6.3639 

4  ft.  6  in. 

3.1819x3.1819 

1      4  ft.  9  in.  X  4  ft. 

9  in. 

6.7162 

4  ft.  9  in. 

3.3581x3  3581 

5  ft.           X  5  ft. 

7.0705 

5  ft. 

3.5357x3.5357 

1      5  ft.  3  in.  X  5  ft. 

3  in. 

7.4246 

5  ft.  3  in. 

3.7123x3.7123 

^      5  ft.  6  in.  X  5  ft. 

6  in. 

7.7781 

5  ft.  6  in. 

3.8890x3.8890 

1      5  ft.  9  in.  X  5  ft. 

9  in. 

8.1317 

5  ft.  9  in. 

4.0658x4.0658 

6  ft.           X  6  ft. 

8.4852 

6  ft. 

4  2426x4.2426 

6  ft.  3  in.  X  6  ft. 

3  in. 

8.8388 

6  ft.  3  in. 

4.4194x4.4194 

6  ft.  6  in.  X  6  ft. 

3  in. 

9.1923 

6  ft.  6  in. 

4.5961  X  4.5961 

6  ft.  9  in.  X  6  ft. 

9  in. 

9.5459 

6  ft.  9  in. 

4.7729x4.7729 

7  ft.           X  7  ft. 

9.9000 

7  ft. 

4.9500x4.9500 

7  ft.  3  in.  X  7  ft. 

3  in. 

10.2412 

7  ft.  3  in. 

5.1206x5.1206 

7  ft.  6  in.  X  7  ft. 

6  in. 

10.8863 

7  ft.  6  in. 

5.4431  X  5.4431 

7  ft.  9  in.  X  7  ft. 

9  in. 

10.9181 

7  ft.  9  in. 

5.4590x5.4590 

8  ft.           X  8  ft. 

11.3132 

8  ft. 

5.6566x5.6566 

To  reduce  the  decimal 

s  to  inches, 

multiply  by 

12  for  inches,  the 

product  by  8  foi 

1 
1 
1 

eio;hts, 

the  eights  h} 

'  2  for  six  tee 

5.6566= 
12 

7.8792 
8 

7.0336 
2 

mths.     Example. 
=5  ft.  7J  in. 

.0672 

BRACKETING. 

Bracketing  is  the  method  of  forming  the  angle  between 
the  ceiling  and  the  side  walls  of  a  room  for  the  lath  and 
plaster  cornice.  Its  form  may  be  elliptical,  or  of  other  com- 
pound curves  ;  and  when  they  are  large,  in  order  to  save 
materials,  the  plaster  is  supported  on  laths  w^iich  are  fastened 
to  wooden  brackets,  placed  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches 
from  centres  ;  and  in  order  to  support  the  laths  at  the  mitres, 
brackets  are  fixed  at  the  internal  and  external  angles. 

PLATE  4. 

Figure  1. — Shows  the  method  of  finding  the  hrachet  for  an 
external  acicte  angle  : — Let  A  C  be  the  projection  of  the  cove  ; 
C  B  the  line  of  the  side  wall,  B  F  the  line  of  the  ceiling,  and 
BCD  the  given  angle  ;  produce  FA  to  E,  draw  E  H  parallel 
to  0  D  ;  divide  the  given  bracket  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts  and  from  the  points  of  division  on  the  curve  line,  drop 
the  lines  1, 1, 1,  2, 2,  2,  etc.,  to  the  line  C  E  ;  draw  the  line  E  G 
perpendicular  to  0  E,  and  equal  to  A  H ;  draw  1,  1,  2,  2, 
parallel  to  E  G  ;  make  the  perpendicular  equal  to  those 
they  are  connected  with  on  the  given  bracket,  and  through 
the  points  thus  found,  draw  the  curve  of  the  angle  rib.  The 
dotted  curve  shows  the  bevel  or  splay  of  the  bracket  to 
form  the  plane  that  shall  coincide  with  the  plane  of  the  given 
brackets. 

Figure  2. — Exhibits  the  method  of  finding  the  bracket 
for  an  internal  right-angle,  and  is  precisely  the  same  as  Fig. 
1,  with  the  exception  of  bevelling  the  angle  bracket  which 
is  not  necessary  for  an  internal  angle. 


riato   -i-. 


BRACKETING.  13 


-Shows  the  manner  of  finding  the  centre^  or 
radius  of  a  circle  whose  centre  is  lost : — Let  A  B  be  the  curve, 
take  any  points  A  C  B  with  the  same  radius,  describe  the 
arcs  as  shown  at  D  E  and  through  the  points  of  intersection 
of  the  arcs  ;  draw  the  lines  E  H  and  G  H,  and  where  they 
intersect  each  other  will  be  the  centre  of  the  circle,  which 
can  be  proved  by  application  of  the  compass. 


Development  of  Surfaces. 


PLATE  5. 

Springing  and  Bending  Mouldings : — Figures  1  and  2 
show  at  A  and  B  what  are  termed  among  carpenters  and 
joiners,  spring  mouldings,  and  the  stuff  from  which  thej  are 
obtained  are  thinner  than  if  the  anguhir  piece  were  worked 
on  the  moukling.  These  mouldings  require  brackets  placed 
at  proper  distances,  either  in  a  straight  or  curved  line.  If 
they  are  curved,  the  moulding  will  require  to  be  bent  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  covering  the  frustum  of  a  right  curve. 

Figure  1. — Shows  an  elevation  of  a  circular  moulding 
mitered  into  a  level  moulding.  The  form  and  position  is 
shown  at  A,  and  the  workmen  will  perceive  that  by  pro- 
ducing the  line  B  D  to  intersect  the  centre  line  of  the  arc  at 
C,  he  will  have  the  point  to  describe  the  circular  piece  for 
the  moulding  required.  E  B  and  F  D  gives  the  radius  for 
the  curve  of  the  out  and  inside  edges,  when  placed  in  the 
position  shown  on  the  elevation. 

Figure  2. — Shows  the  application  of  the  same  rules  to  a 
circular  elevation  of  a  diiferent  form  standing  over  a  straight 
plan.  The  back  lines  of  the  moulding  are  produced  until 
they  bisect  a  horizontal  line  drawn  through  the  centre,  from 
which  the  circular  cornice  was  struck,  as  shown  by  the  lines 
A  B  and  C  D.  In  other  respects  the  operation  is  precisely 
the  same  as  at  Fig.  1. 

Figure  3. — A  tangent  to  a  circle  heing  given  to  find  the 
point  of  contact  with  the  circle. — Let  C  be  the  centre  on 
which  to  describe  the  circle  and  A  B  the  tangent,  bisect  B  C, 
then   with    one  point  of  the   compass  in  £,  with  the  same 


Plati-   5. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  SURFACES.  15 

radius,  describe  the   arc  B  D  C,   then    the  intersection  of 
the  circular  lines  shown  at  D  is  the  point  of  contact. 

Figure  4. — Having  the  diameter  given  to  find  the  circuin- 
ference  of  a  circle  Geometrically : — Let  A  B  be  the  given 
diameter ;  take  the  distance  A  B  as  a  radius,  and  with  A 
and  B  as  centres,  describe  the  arcs  intersecting  at  C ;  join 
C  A  and  C  B,  and  produce  them  to  the  tangent  D  E,  then  D 
E  will  be  the  development,  or  stretch-out  of  half  the  circum- 
ference, nearly. 


CARPENTRY 


PLATE  6.     • 

The  carpenter's  square  is  the  measure  of  distance,  and  is 
as  important  and  valuable  to  the  workman  as  the  clock  is  to 
tlie  time-keeper,  or  the  compass  to  the  mariner.  The  square 
in  general  use  consists  of  a  blade  and  tongue  placed  at  right- 
angles  to  each  other.  Tlie  blade  is  two  feet;  the  tongue, 
twelve,  or  sixteen  inches  long,  divided  into  inches  and  eights 
of  an  inch.     For  convenience  of  workmen,  will  be  seen  at 

Figure  1. — A  method  of  dividing  a  board  in  an  even 
number  of  equal  parts,  when  the  same  is  an  uneven  number 
of  inches,  or  parts  of  an  inch  in  w^idth,  by  placing  the  square 
as  shown,  with  the  points  of  the  square  on  the  edges  of  the 
board  ;  then  the  points  of  division  will  be  found  at  6,  12 
and  18,  for  dividing  the  board  in  four  equal  parts. 

Figure  2. — Exhibits  a  method  of  finding  the  lines  for 
eight  squaring  a  piece  of  timber  witli  the  square,  by  placing 
the  blade  on  the  piece,  and  making  the  points  seven  inches 
from  the  ends  of  the  square,  from  which  to  draw  the  lines 
for  the  sides  of  tlie  octagonal  piece  required.  At  the  heel  of 
the  square  is  shown  a  method  of  cutting  a  board  to  fit  any 
angle  with  the  square  and  compass,  by  placing  the  square  in 
the  angle  and  taking  the  distance  from  the  heel  of  the  square 
to  the  angle  A  in  the  compass  ;  then  lay  the- square  on  the 
piece  to  be  fitted  with  the  distance  taken,  and  from  the  point 
A  draw  the  line  A  B,  which  will  give  the  angle  to  cut  the 
piece  required. 

Figure  3. — Exhibits  a  method  of  constructing  a  polygonal 
figure  of  eight  sides ;  by  placing  the  square  on  the  line  A  B 
with  equal  distances  on  the  blade  and  tongue,  as  shown  ;  the 
curve  lines  show  the  method  of  transferring  the  distances ; 
the  diagonal  gives  the  intersection  at  the  angles. 


Plnlo   6. 


CARPENTRY.  17 


Figure  4. — Exhibits  a  method  of  finding  the  cuts  in  a 
mitre-box,  by  placing  the  square  on  the  line  A  B  at  equal 
distances  from  the  heel  of  the  square,  say  six  inches.  The 
bevel  is  shown  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  lines  by  applying  it 
to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  square.  To  find  the  perpendicu- 
lar and  horizontal  cut  of  rafters,  v^ith  the  square,  take  the 
horizontal  distance,  or  half  the  width  of  the  building  for  the 
run,  on  the  blade,  and  the  rise,  on  the  tongue. 

Figure  5. — Exhibits  two  methods  of  finding  the  backing 
of  the  angle  or  hip  rafter ;  one,  which  is  in  Bell's  Work  on 
Carpentry  Made  Easy,  is  by  taking  the  length  of  rafter  on  the 
blade  and  the  rise  or  height  on  the  tongue,  and  placing  the 
square  on  the  line  D  E,  the  plan  of  the  hip,  the  angle  is  given 
to  bevel  the  hip  rafter,  as  shown  at  F.  This  method  gives 
the  angle  to  bevel  the  hip-rafter,  only  for  a  right-angled  plan, 
where  the  pitches  are  the  same,  and  no  other ^  which  makes  it 
circumstantial,  and  of  little  or  no  value  to  the  workman. 

The  other  method,  which  is  original  with  me,  applies  to 
right,  obtuse  and  acute  angles,  where  the  pitches  are  the 
same.  At  the  angle  D  will  be  seen  the  line  from  the  points 
K  L,  at  the  intersection  of  the  sides  of  the  angle  rafter  with 
the  sides  of  the  plan.  With  one  point  of  the  compass  at  D, 
describe  the  curve  from  the  line  K  L.  Tangential  to  the  curve 
draw  the  dotted  line,  cutting  A  H  at  I ;  draw  I  J  parallel  to 
A  B,  the  pitch  of  the  angle-rafter.  At  G  will  be  found  a 
section  of  the  hip  or  angle-rafter.  The  rules  here  shown  are 
onl}^  applicable  to  certain  cases  where  the  pitches  are  the 
same.  But  to  enable  the  workman  to  construct  anything 
that  any  one  may  design,  we  would  refer  him  to  the  method 
shown  on  Plate  9,  which  is  a  principle  that  applies  to  the 
finding  of  sections  of  angular  pieces  to  any  angle,  from  the 
horizontal  to  the  perpendicular. 

3 


18  CAKPENTEY. 


PLATE  7. 

Shows  a  timber  foimdation  for  a  frame  building  with  two 
side  elevations,  framed  in  the  usual  manner  for  good  houses. 
The  object  of  this  and  the  following  Plates,  is  first  to  give 
the  inexperienced  workman  the  names  used  among  carpenters 
and  joiners,  of  the  different  pieces  of  timber  used  in  framing 
and  where  thej  are  placed.  Also  to  show  the  method  of  con- 
structing what  is  called  a  balloon  frame. 

Figure  1. — Shows  a  timber  plan  of  foundation  supported 
by  brick  or  stone  walls.  The  outside  timbers  are  called  sills, 
and  if  there  are  no  openings,  all  other  timbers  are  called 
beams ;  but  when  there  are  openings  for  chimneys  or  stair- 
ways, the  workman  will  be  required  to  mortice  and  tenon  the 
timbers  together,  as  shown  on  the  plan.  Then  the  first  piece 
of  timber  to  prepare  will  be  the  trim7aer,  shown  at  A,  which 
is  tenoned  into  the  frim?}ier-hea?ns,  shown  at  B  B.  The  short 
beams  tenoned  into  the  trimmer  are  called  tail-heams.  Fig. 
2  and  3  are  the  front  and  a  portion  of  the  side  elevation  of 
the  frame,  standing  on  the  foundation,  showing  the  posts, 
beams,  enter-ties,  plates,  rafters  and  braces,  in  their  proper 
places.  The  timbers  shown  at  A  A,  Fig.  2,  are  called  frame- 
beams,  D  D  corner  posts  and  0  C  rafters.  At  Fig.  3,  A 
shows  what  should  be  called  an  intermediate  post ;  the 
pieces  of  timber  called  enter-ties^  are  shown  at  B  B  ;  the  piece 
of  timber  supporting  the  rafters  at  C,  represents  the  flate^ 
and  B  B  the  hiUs  ;  the  oblique  pieces  of  timber  sliown  on 
the  elevations,  are  called  hraces ;  the  timbers  shown  on  each 
side  of  the  openings,  are  called  joists^  and  termed  door  and 
window  joist ;  those  placed  between  doors  and  windows  are 
called  intermediate  joists  ox  fur  rings  ;  all  joists  cut  under  or 
over  the  braces  are  called  cripjples ;  a  piece  of  timber  placed 
on  piers  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  other  timbers  or  parti- 
tions are  called  summers ;  a  piece  of  timber  placed  on  a  truss 
frame  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  common  rafters,  is 
called  ^j^urlin. 


Plate   7. 


Fig. 

1. 

i 

■i-j-l 

j 

! 

1 

n 

1        n       n^^.        .       i 

i 
J   i 

i 

='-1 

In    ! 

n  1 

— 1 
1 
i 

0 

1     1 

1 
i 

i 

! 

1 

! 

i 
1 
1 

IH 

iiH 
liri 

i; 

Hi 

Ml 

1 

1  y 

t 

i 
J 

— 1 

^ 

! 

— 

^ 

1 

!  |!h; 

Fig.  2 


::k 


4 


Fig.  3. 


1           r 

1 

1 

y                 '' 

_// 

-^^-^ 

,  ,  1 

F 

^ 

i 

y^  \ui 

w 

i 

■ 

— ^ 

V. 

'ja 

_.-^ 

-1 

^ 

^ 

-v~ 

y^" 

u 

i 

i 

^ 

J ^^-^^ =r— 

ri-^ 

'  ,^  _,' — 

— ^ 

r  J 

! 

"?Z     '      'J^ 

/7 

^^^f 

y 

-'--1 

?i^ 

a 

j 

1= — 

^ 

]n| 

1 

y  .^ 

— ^^    ^- 

ID 

CAKPENTKY.  19 


CONSTRUCTION    OF  ROOFS. 

In  old  Gothic  buildings,  the  roof  always  had  a  high  pitch, 
its  outline  formed  a  striking  feature,  and  in  general  had  a  grace- 
full  proportion  with  the  magnitude  of  the  building ;  some- 
limes,  however,  it  presented  a  plain  surface  of  too  great  extent, 
as  the  roof  of  Westminster  Hall.  Though  a  high  roof  is  in 
perfect  unison  with  the  aspiring  and  pyramidal  character  of 
Gothic  architecture ;  in  the  more  chaste  and  classic  style  of 
the  Greek,  it  is  a  less  conspicuous  object.  Many  of  the 
Grecian  buildings  were  never  intended  to  be  roofed  at  all ; 
but  where  a  roof  is  necessary,  it  was  not  attempted  to  be 
hidden,  but  constituted  one  of  the  most  ornamental  parts  of 
the  building.  Of  timber  roofs,  we  have  no  examples  in 
Grecian  buiklings ;  but  the  beautiful  stone  roof  of  the  Octa- 
gon Tower  of  Andronicus  Cyrrhestes,  and  that  of  the  Choragic 
Monument  of  Lysicrates,  are  sufficient  to  show  that  they  were 
more  incliricd  to  ornament  than  to  hide  this  essential  part  of 
a  building. 

The  height  of  roofs  at  the  present  time,  is  seldom  above 
one-third  of  the  span,  and  should  never  be  less  than  one-sixth. 
Tlie  most  usual  pitch  is  that  when  the  height  is  one-fourth  of 
the  span,  or  when  the  angle  with  the  horizon  is  26^  degrees. 

The  pediments  of  the  Greek  temples  make  an  angle  of 
from  12  to  16  degrees  with  tlie  horizon  ;  tlie  latter  corresponds 
nearly  with  one-seventh  of  the  span.  The  pediments  of  the 
Roman  buildings  vary  from  23  to  24  degrees :  24:  degrees  is 
nearly  two-ninths  of  the  span. 


20  CARPENTRY. 


PLATE  8. 

Shows  the  method  of  constructing  what  is  termed  a  balloon 
frame.  Fig.  1,  shows  the  timber  plan ;  Fig.  2  and  3,  the 
front  and  side  elevations.  The  foundation  timbers  should  be 
of  white  pine ;  all  other  timbers,  of  spruce  or  eastern  pine. 
All  the  tools  the  workman  requires  to  construct  a  frame  of 
this  kind,  is  a  saw,  hammer  and  chisel.  The  side -sills 
should  be  4x4  inches ;  front  and  rear  sills  four  inches  thick  ; 
beams  2x8,  or  ten  inches,  according  to  their  length  and  the 
load  they  are  required  to  carry.  Corner  post  4x4  inches; 
door  and  window  joists,  3x4  inches ;  all  other  intermediate 
joists,  2x4  inches;  plates,  4x4  inches;  rafters,  3x5  inches. 
The  two  outside  beams  in  second  story,  are  spiked  to  the 
joists ;  those  resting  on  the  plates  are  spiked  to  the  rafters. 
The  enter-ties  require  to  be  1^x4  inches  let  into  the  joists  to 
support  second  story  beams.  Each  tier  of  beams  should 
have  one  or  two  courses  of  bridging.  When  the  frame  is 
completed  and  sheathed  with  one  inch  worked  boards  placed 
diagonally,  and  securely  nailed  to  every  joist,  it  will  be  quite 
as  substantial  and  safe  as  a  frame  made  in  the  usual  manner. 


Plate   8. 


Tig.  I. 


! 

i_j 

Tun 

n 

__i: 

,^ 

.__^ 

^_l 

._    ^ 

HZl 

._A 

^    ^ 

_J 

1 

1 
i 
■ 

j 
j 

s 

H   ! 

i 
1 

1 

s 

N      1 

1 

! 

y 

^      t 

i 

1 

g 

r 

! 

Im 

^ 

If-  ir 

■w-^ 

^ 

T-i 

-  w 

-M-F 

P 

H    fe 

"T 

tud 

-^"T 

^S  -| 

Lizil 

^~i 

A 


¥tg. 


'2^ 


2 


iU 


^XZJH 


^^ 


I-U 


oq 


Tig.  3. 


3E 

3E 
31 


J<L 


:sz" 


CAKPENTKY. 


21 


ROOF  COVERINGS. 

The  kinds  of  covering  used  for  timber  roofs,  are  copper, 
lead,  iron,  tinned  iron,  slates  of  different  kinds,  tiles,  shingles, 
gravel,  felt  and  cement.  Taking  the  angle  for  slates  to  be 
26^  degrees,  the  following  table  will  show  the  degree  of 
inclination  that  may  be  given  for  other  materials. 


Kind  of  covering. 


Tin 

Copper 

Lead, 

Slates,  large, 

"       ordinary,  . 

''       fine, 

Plain  tiles, 

Gravel 

Felt  and  Cement. 


Inclination  to  the  hor- 
izon in  degrees. 


Deg. 
3 

3 
3 

22 
26 
26 
29 


Min. 
50 
50 
50 
00 
33 
33 
41 


Height  of  roof 

in  parts  of  the 

span. 


A 
i 

l 

4 

i 

2 
T 


Weight  upon  a  square 
of  roofing. 


50  pounds. 

100 

700    " 
1120 

900    " 

500 
1780 


Felt  and  Cement  or  Gravel  Rooting  can  be  used  at  almost  any  inclination  that 
other  materials  are  used. 


FRAMING. 

A  knowledge  of  framing  is  the  foundation  of  the  art  and 
science  of  building  and  should  be  possessed  by  every  person 
professing  to  be  a  carpenter  and  joiner.  To  him  who  under- 
stands the  different  methods  of  finding  the  various  cuts  neces- 
sary in  his  work,  carpentry  becomes  an  agreeable  and  desira- 
ble occupation,  rather  than  an  unpleasant  task,  attended  with 
anxiety  and  uncertainty. 

The  experience  of  workmen  generally,  will  testify  that 
books  have,  as  yet,  furnished  them  but  small  assistance  on 
this  subject.  It  is  intended,  therefore,  to  present  at  this  time 
a  new  and  complete  system  for  finding  the  sections  of  timbers 
for  roofs  of  every  description  by  means  of  tangents  and 
circles. 

PLATE  9. 

Exhibits  a  new  and  easy  system  of  lines  for  finding  the 
lengths  of  rafters  /  the  'backing  of  the  hips  and  the  lines  for 
Gutting  the  jaek-r afters  and  purlins^  for  right ^  acute  and 
ohtuse  angled  huilding^  where  the  pitches  are  the  sanie^  or  of 
different  inclinations. 

Let  A  B  C  D  be  the  plan  of  the  roof  A  E  D,  and  B  F  C 
the  plan  of  the  hips,  A  G  D  the  pitch  of  the  roof  and  G  H 
the  height  of  the  roof;  then  A  G  and  G  D  will  be  the  leno;th 
of  the  common  rafters ;  make  K  L  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
common  rafters,  join  B  L,  which  gives  you  the  length  of  the 
hip-rafter.  Divide  K  L  into  as  many  parts  as  you  have  jack- 
rafters,  and  from  the  points  of  division,  draw  the  dotted  lines 
parallel  to  K  B,  and  from  the  points  of  intersection  with  the 
line  B  L,  draw  the  jack-rafters  i  1,  2  2,  etc.     The  bevel  for 


mate  9. 


FRAMING.  23 


the  face  of  the  jack-rafters  and  hips  is  shown  at  M;  the  down 
bevel  for  the  jack-rafters,  is  shown  at  G ;  the  down  bevel  for 
the  hips  is  shown  at  N. 

To  obtain  the  backing  of  the  liip-rafter.  At  any  point  on 
the  line  A  H,  with  one  point  of  the  compass,  describe  the 
arc  to  touch  the  common  rafter  ;  then  A  C  becomes  a  tangent 
to  the  cii'cle  P  R  ;  draw  the  line  O  S  at  right-angles  to  A  E  ; 
from  the  point  S,  draw  the  line  S  T  tangential  to  the  circle 
P  R ;  join  O  Y,  then  S  V  0  is  a  section  of  the  roof,  cut 
perpendicular  to  the  hip-rafter  and  through  the  line  S  O,  and 
consequently  S  Y  O  will  be  the  angle  to  bevel  the  hips 
required. 

To  find  the  mitre  or  butt-joints  of  the  purlin  against  the  hip- 
rafters,  make  the  line  I,  2,  Fig.  1,  the  pitch  of  the  roof;  take 
any  point  3  and  describe  tlie  circles,  1,  4  and  5,  6  ;  then  from 
the  points  of  intersection  with  the  line  4,  3,  draw  the  lines  4, 
7  and  6,  8  parallel  to  C  D ;  join  8,  9  and  7,  9,  then  the  bevel 
shown  at  Y  will  give  the  down  cut  on  the  side  5,  3,  and  the 
bevel  shown  at  8  will  give  the  face  cut  of  the  purlin  shown 
on  the  line  1,  3. 


CARPENTRY 


PLATE   10. 

Exhibits  the  application  of  the  foregoing  principles  to 
obtuse  and  acute  angles.  The  same  process  is  observed  as 
in  Plate  9.  The  down  bevel  shown  at  10,  gives  the  down 
cut  for  the  common  and  jack-rafters ;  the  bevels  shown  at  1 
and  2  are  the  face  bevels  for  the  jack  and  hip-rafters. 
Those  shown  at  3  and  4  are  the  down  bevels  for  the  hip- 
rafters  ;  the  bevels  shown  at  6,  6,  are  for  the  face  of  the  purlin 
and  applied  to  the  line  7,  8 ;  those  shown  at  5,  5  are  applied 
on  the  line  9,  Y. 


Plate    10. 


CARPENTKY.  25 


A  PRACTICAL  METHOD 

OF  FINDING  THE  NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  AND  INCHES    CONTAINED  IN 
TIMBER  AND  OTHER  METERIALS. 

If  the  length  be  given  in  feet  and  inches,  and  the  section, 
or  end,  in  inches,  multiply  the  sides  of  the  section  by  each 
other,  and  divide  by  twelve.  Also  divide  the  length  by  12  ; 
multiply  these  two  dimensions  by  each  other  duodecimally, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet  and  inches. 

Example. — Find  the  number  of  cubic  feet,  in  a  piece  of 
timber  28  feet  long,  11  inches  wide,  and  3  inches  thick. 

ft. 
in.  12)28  the  length, 


the  sides.  Multiply     2 '4 

by  2-9 


12)33  4-8 
1-9-0 


2-9 


6*5  gives  6  ft.  5  in. 
the  solidity. 


Example  2. — Find  the  cubic  contents  of  4  quarters  or  studs, 
each  12  feet  6  inches  long,  and  6  inches  wide,  by  2\  inches 
thick. 


5'2'6  gives  5  ft.  2  in.  and 
6  parts  the  solidity. 


^  )■  the  sides. 

12-6  the  length 

4  the  number  of  pieces 

2)15 

12)50-0 

1-3 

Multiply 

by 

4-2 
1-3 

4-2 

1-0-6 



26  CARPENTRY. 


PLATE   Id. 

Shows  the  method  of  framing  a  roof  with  a  transept  on 
one  side,  where  the  intersections  of  the  roofs  form  internal 
angles  on  one  side  of  the  plan  /  also  the.  plan  of  the  gable 
standing  in  the  line  of  the  side  opposite  the  transepjt. 

Let  A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  be  the  plan  of  the  roof,  G  E  and 
B  F,  the  plan  of  the  angle  rafters,  B  I  and  B  J  tlie  length  of 
the  coramon  rafters.  Divide  the  rafters  G  I  and  G  E.  into  as 
many  parts  as  you  require  jack-rafters,  as  shown  at  Fig.  1  and 
Fig.  3  ;  drop  the  lines  from  I  and  J,  to  IS^  and  O ;  join  N  G  and  K 
F,  also  O  G  and  O  B,  then  the  bevel  shown  at  O,  will  be  the 
face  bevel  for  the  jack-rafters,  shown  at  Fig.  1,  and  the  bevel 
shown  at  N  will  be  the  face  bevel  for  the  jack-rafters  shown  at 
Fig.  3  ;  the  bevel  shown  at  N  and  O  gives  the  lines  for  mitreing 
the  face  of  the  hip-rafters  ;  the  down  bevels  for  the  jack- 
rafters  are  shown  at  I  and  J,  and  the  down  bevel  for  the  hip- 
rafters  is  shuwn  at  P.  To  find  the  backing  for  the  valley 
shown  at  B,  draw  the  line  L  M  at  right-angles  to  B  F  ;  then 
with  one  point  of  the  compass  in  the  points  L  and  M,  describe 
the  circles  touching  the  lines  B  J  and  B  I ;  then  from  the 
points  L  and  M,  draw  the  tangential  lines  M  S  and  L  S,  the 
internal  angle  thus  found  will  be  the  angle  to  bevel  the  val- 
ley-rafter. The  external  angle  shown  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  tangential  lines  would  be  the  backing  for  a  hip-rafter, 
where  different  pitches  of  the  roof  intersect  each  other.  The 
method  of  finding  the  backing  for  the  angle-rafter  to  support 
the  gable-rafters  shown  at  Fig.  1,  is  the  same  as  shown  on 
Plates  9  and  10,  and  consequently  needs  no  explanation. 

Figure  1. — Shows  an  elevation  of  the  gable  with  the  pitch 
of  the  main  roof,  shown  at  G  T  and  E  S.     The  object  is  to 


Plat©  11 


CAKPENTKY.  27 


show  the  workman  that  the  cuts  for  the  jack-rafters  may  be 
found  from  the  pitches  of  the  roofs  when  they  are  known 
without  reference  to  the  plan ;  the  bevels  here  shown  are 
the  same  as  those  shown  at  O  and  !N^. 

Figure  4. — Shows  how  to  erect  a  perpendicular  from  the 
extremity  of  a  given  line.  Let  A  B  be  the  given  straight 
line  and  B  the  point  from  which  to  erect  the  perpendicular. 
Take  any  point  C  with  C  B  as  radius  and  describe  the  circle 
D  B  E,  produce  the  line  D  C  to  E,  join  E  B  and  the  line 
thus  obtained  will  be  the  required  perpendicular. 


28  CARPENTRY. 


PLATE  12. 

Figure  1. — Exhibits  the  method  of  finding  the  backing  of 
the  hip-rafters,  the  lengths  and  cuts  of  jack-rafters,  where  the 
pitches  are  not  at  the  same  angle  of  elevation.  Let  ABC  and 
D,  be  the  plan  of  the  roof,  A  E  B  the  plan  of  the  hips,  F  G 
and  J  H  the  height  of  the  rafters ;  join  A  G  and  A  H,  then 
A  G  will  be  the  pitch  of  the  roof  over  the  line  E  J,  and  A 
H  will  be  the  pitch  over  the  line  E  F,  and  E  A  will  be  the 
line  of  intersection.  The  down  and  face  bevels  for  the  jack- 
rafters  and  hips  are  all  shown  ;  the  principle  and  method  of 
finding  the  section  of  the  hip  is  the  same  as  shown  on 
Plate  9. 

Figure  2. — Exhibits  a  method  of  finding  the  distance  to 
kerf  the  back  string  for  a  circular  stairs  so  that  when  secured 
in  its  place  the  saw-kerfs  shall  be  closed.  To  find  the  distance 
the  saw-kerfs  shall  be  from  each  other,  make  C  D  equal  the 
radius  of  the  required  circle  shown  at  A  B,  then  take  a  piece 
the  thickness  of  the  string-piece,  any  width  ;  make  a  saw- 
kerf  in  the  centre  as  shown  at  C,  secure  the  piece  at  C  and  F, 
move  the  piece  from  D  until  the  saw-kerf  is  closed  at  C, 
which  will  give  the  points  for  the  saw-kerfs  required,  as  shown 
on  the  curve  line  at  E  and  D. 

Figure  8. — Exhibits  a  very  cheap  and  expeditious  plan  for 
framing  a  roof  to  span  from  forty  to  seventy  feet.  It  requires 
no  explanation,  further  than  to  say  that  the  tie  need  not  be 
more  than  5x8  inches  ;  the  rafters  and  braces  5x5  inches  ;  the 
battens  of  one  inch  boards  spiked  to  the  timbers  with  large 
nails.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  best  roof  than  can  be  con- 
structed, as  it  has  all  the  advantages  of  a  solid  mass  without 
the  great  weight  and  the  disadvantages  of  the  shrinkage  of 
material  which  is  almost  entirely  obviated  by  the  crossing  of 
the  fibres  of  the  wood. 


Plate   12 


CARPENTKY.  29 


A  PRACTICAL  METHOD 

To  find  the  superficial  contents  of  boards  and  timber.  For 
boards  multiply  the  width  in  inches  by  the  length  in  feet  and 
divide  by  12. 

Example. — Find  the  number  of  feet  in  a  board  1  inch  thick 
9  inches  wide  and  13  feet  long. 

13 

9 

12)117 


9-9=9  feet  9  inches. 

JExample. — 2nd,  find  the  number  of  feet  in  a  piece  of  tim- 
ber 3x10  inches  21  feet  long. 

10  inches  long. 
3       "      thick. 

12)30 

2-6  inches  in  each  foot  in  length. 
21  feet  long. 

42 
10-6 

52*6  Gives  52  feet  6  inches,  the  number 
of  feet  in  the  piece. 


30  CAKPENTKY. 


PLATE  13. 

Exhibits  the  method  of  framing  an  obtuse  and  acute-angled 
building,  the  plan  being  a  rhomboid,  where  the  projection 
of  the  rafters  are  supported  by  braces.  The  lines  for  finding 
the  shoulders  for  braces  to  lit  the  obtuse  and  acute- angles  ; 
also  the  section  or  backing  of  rafters,  and  the  bevel  required 
to  cut  the  rafters  so  that  their  ends  shall  be  in  the  plane  of 
the  building. 

Let  A  (Fig.  1),  be  the  plan  of  the  post,  B  the  plan  of  the 
rafter,  C  the  elevation  of  the  post,  and  D  the  plate.  Fig.  2,  and 
3  the  braces,  E  the  elevation  of  the  rafters.  To  find  the 
shoulders  of  the  braces,  draw  F  G  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the 
post ;  make  H,  the  under  side  of  the  brace,  equal  in  width  to 
B,  Fioj.  1  :  then  at  the  intersection  of  the  lower  line  of  the 
brace  with  the  line  of  the  post,  place  one  point  of  the  com- 
pass and  describe  the  arc  shown  at  G ;  draw  the  tangential 
line  at  right-angles  to  the  line  of  the  brace,  and  from  the  point 
of  intersection,  draw  the  bevel  line  to  the  line  of  the  post ; 
then  the  bevel  shown  at  H  will  give  the  lines  for  the  edges 
of  the  braces  shown  at  Fig.  2  and  3.  Fig.  4  is  an  elevation 
of  the  rafter.  The  method  of  finding  the  bevel  at  the  edge 
of  the  rafter  so  that  it  shall  be  in  the  plane  of  the  roof,  is 
shown  at  E.  The  bevel  for  the  butt-joints  at  the  apex  or 
peak  of  the  roof  is  shown  at  F. 

Figure  5. — To  draw  a  line  making  equal  angles  with  two 
given  converging  lines.  Let  A  D  and  B  C  be  two  converging 
lines  ;  draw  G  H  parallel  to  0  B,  and  I  H  parallel  to  D  A ; 
make  G  H  and  H  I  equal ;  from  the  points  G  and  I,  describe 
the  arcs  J  K,  and  through  the  points  of  intersection  J  and  K, 
draw  the  line  E  F  which  will  be  at  equal  angles  with  the 
lines  A  D  and  C  B. 


CARPENTRY.  31 


LONG  MEASURE. 

Long  measure  is  used  in  measuring  length  or  distance  only, 
without  regard  to  breadth  or  depth.     Its  denominations  are 
leagues^  miles^  furlongs^  rods^  yards  feet  and  inches. 
12    inches         ....     make  1  foot. 
3    feet        -         -         -         -  "1  yard. 

5^  yards  or  16  ^  feet       -         -         "1  rod. 

40    rods "1  furlong. 

8    furlongs  or  320  rods  -         "      1  mile. 

3    miles "1  league. 

Note. — 4  inches  make  1  hand;  9  inches  I  span;  18  inches  1 
cubit;  6  feet  1  fathom;  4  rods  or  100  links  1  chain;  25  links  1  rod  ; 
1^^  inches  1  link. 

The  chain  is  commonly  used  in  measuring  roads  and  land, 
and  is  called  Gunter's  chain,  from  the  name  of  the  inventor. 

A  knot,  in  sea  phrase,  answers  to  a  nautical  or  geographi- 
cal mile  of  5280  feet. 

Mariner's  measure  is  a  kind  of  long  measure  used  in  esti- 
mating distances  at  sea. 

6  feet         -         -         -     make  1  fathom 
120  fathoms      -         -  "1   cable-length. 

880  fathoms  or  7^  cable         "       1  mile. 


32  CARPENTliY. 


PLATE  14. 

Figure  1. — Shows  the  method  of  finding  the  cuts  in  a 
mitre-hox  hy  which  to  cut  a  sprung  moulding  when  a  hevel 
cannot  te  wpplied. — Let  A  be  the  moulding  in  position  C,  D 
the  mitre  given  to  find  the  bevels  to  cut  the  mitre-box.  With 
one  point  of  the  compass  in  E,  describe  the  semicircle  F  G  H  ; 
drop  the  lines  from  F  G  I  H  to  K  C  D  J,  at  right-angles  to 
F  H  ;  draw  D  J  and  C  K  parallel  to  F  H ;  join  J  L  and  L  K, 
then  in  the  angles  E  L  J  and  ELK,  will  be  found  the  bevels 
required  to  cut  the  mitre-box.  The  bevel  shown  at  M  will  be 
applied  to  the  top,  and  the  bevel  shown  at  N  will  be  applied 
to  the  side  of  the  box. 

Figure  2. — Shows  the  jolan  and  elevation  of  an  octagonal 
Toof  to  find  the  angle  and  jachr  afters. — On  the  plan  produce 
the  lines  B  A  and  C  D  to  the  line  E  F ;  join  E  G  and  F  G, 
then  E  G  F  will  be  the  elevation  of  the  roof  To  find  the 
backing  of  the  angle-rafters.  With  one  point  of  the  compass 
at  H  describe  the  arc,  touching  the  pitch  line  of  the  roof  as 
shown ;  from  the  point  B  draw  the  line  B  I,  making  the 
line  thus  drawn  a  tangent  to  the  circle,  and  from  the  point 
of  intersection  with  the  line  A  C,  draw  the  line  to  H,  then 
in  the  angle  thus  found  will  be  seen  the  angle  to  bevel  the 
angle-rafters  as  shown  at  J.  To  find  the  lengths  and  cuts  of 
the  angle  and  jack-rafters,  draw  K  L  perpendicular  to  D  C, 
and  equal  to  F  G ;  join  C  L  and  D  L,  then  the  bevel  shown 
at  N  will  be  for  the  face  of  the  angle-rafters  at  their  intersec- 
tion, and  for  the  face  of  the  jack-rafters,  the  down  bevel  for 
jack-rafters  is  shown  at  G ;  the  down  bevel  for  the  angle- 
rafters  is  found  by  making  C  M  equal  one-half  of  A  C,  ^nd 
L  M  equal  P  G,  then  at  O  will  be  seen  the  down  bevel  for 
the  angle-rafter. 

Figure  3. — Shows  the  application  of  the  same  principle  to 
the  framing  of  a  roof  over  a  polygonal  plan  of  six  sides  and 
does  not  require  any  explanation. 


Plate  14, 


34  CARPENTRY. 


PLATE    15, 

Exhibits  plans  and  elevations  of  octagonal  and  square 
spires  for  churches  or  hell-towers^  as  shown  at  Fig.  1  and^. 
To  find  the  lines  for  the  face  of  the  timbers,  make  the  dotted 
b'ne  A  B  shown  on  the  plan,  Fig.  1,  equal  0  D  on  the  eleva- 
tion ;  join  E  A  and  F  A,  then  the  bevel  shovi^n  at  G  will  give 
the  lines  for  the  face  of  the  enter-ties  ;  and  the  bevel  shown  at 
H  will  give  the  lines  for  the  upper  and  lower  sides  ;  the  bevel 
for  cutting  the  angular  timbers  to  intersect  each  other  as 
shown  at  D  will  be  found  at  A.  The  methods  of  finding  the 
backing  of  the  angular  timbers  is  precisely  the  same  as 
shown  on  Plate  9. 

Figure  2. — Shows  the  application  of  the  same  principles 
to  the  framing  of  a  square  spire  or  bell-tower ;  a  bare  inspec- 
tion of  the  Figure  is  suflacient  for  its  comprehension. 

Figure  3. —  Through  any  three  poiiits  to  describe  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle.,  or  when  the  centre  of  a  circle  is  lost.,  to  find 
it. — Let  A  B  C  be  the  three  given  points  ;  join  A  B  and  C 
B,  and  from  the  points  A  B  C  as  centres,  describe  the  arcs  E 
F  and  D  G ;  through  the  points  of  intersection  draw  the  lines 
E  F  and  D  G,  produce  them  until  they  meet,  which  will  be 
the  point  or  centre  from  which  to  describe  the  circle  which 
shall  touch  the  points,  ABC. 

Figure  4. — To  erect  a  perpendicular  to  a  given  line  from 
a  point  in  the  same.  From  the  point  C  take  any  two  equal 
distances,  as  C  B  and  C  A,  and  from  the  points  A  B  as 
centres,  describe  two  arcs  intersecting  each  other  as  at  D ; 
join  D  and  C  and  the  line  thus  obtained  will  be  the  required 
perpendicular. 


r>lale  15.      ri 


CARPENTRY. 


35 


WEIGHT  OR   FORCE. 

REQUIRED    TO    TEAR    ASUNDER    ONE  SQUARE    INCH  OF  THE  DIFFERENT 
MATERIALS  USED  IN  THE  COJ^STRUCTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


WOODS    ANL 

METALS. 

Oak,  American, 

17,300 

Swedish  Iron, 

78,850 

Oak,  English, 

-    19,800 

English  Iron,     - 

-      55,772 

Beach,      - 

17,700 

French  Iron, 

61,041 

Ash,     - 

-    16,700 

Russian  Iron, 

59,472 

Elm, 

13,489 

Cast  Iron, 

42,000 

Walnut, 

-     8,130 

Steel,  Soft, 

-    120,000 

Norway  Pine,  - 

14,300 

Ivory,    - 

16,000 

Georgia  Pine, 

-     7,818 

Marble, 

-       8,700 

White  Pine,     - 

8,800 

Whalebone,    - 

7,600 

Iron  Wire,  - 

113,077 

To  find  the  strength  of  Cohesion.  Multiply  area  of  section  in 
inches  by  the  weight  required  to  tear  one  inch  asunder,  and  the 
product  is  the  strength  in  pounds. 


WEIGHTS 


REQUIRED  TO  CRUSH    ONE    CUBIC  INCH  OF  SEVERAL    MATERIALS    USED 
IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


METALS. 

Cast  Iron,         -         -  116,700 

Brass,  -         -         -  154,784 

Copper,  Cast,     -         -  116,102 

Lead,  Cast,            -  -     8,042 


WOODS. 

Elm,          -          -          -  1,284 

American  Pine,     -  -     1,606 

White  Deal,     -         -  1,928 

White  Oak,          -  -     3,240 

English  Oak,     -         -  3,860 


Freestone, 
Limestone,  Black, 
Granite,  Blue,  - 


STONES. 

18,000         Brick,  hard, 
-  19,450         Brick,  soft, 
20,890         Chalk, 


1,754 

-   1,224 

1,040 


36  CARPENTRY. 


PLATE   16. 

Figure  1. — Shows  the  method  of  finding  the  raking  mould 
to  any  angle  of  elevation^  also  for  a  given  elevation  to  any 
angle  inclining  towards  a  straight  line. 

Divide  the  surface  of  the  horizontal  moulding,  here  shown, 
into  any  number  of  parts,  and  from  the  points  thus  obtained, 
draw  the  inclining  parallel  lines  to  the  required  angle  of 
elevation  ;  from  the  same  points  draw  vertical  lines  to  meet 
the  horizontal  line  A  B,  and,  with  one  point  of  the  compass 
on  A,  transfer  the  points  between  A  and  B,  on  the  horizontal 
line,  to  the  inclining  line  ;  perpendicular  to  the  inclining 
line,  draw  the  corresponding  lines  to  meet  the  parallels,  and 
through  the  points  of  intersection  trace  the  raking  moulding 
required. 

Figure  2. — Shows  the  method  of  finding  the  raking  mould- 
ing to  any  angle  inclining  towards  a  straight  line. 

To  find  the  raking  mould  when  the  gable  is  placed  over  any 
of  the  diverging  lines  shown  on  the  plan.  Let  B  A  C  be  a  right 
angle,  A  H  C  a  straight  line,  and  A  D  B  the  elevation  of  the 
roof.  Divide  the  circle  F  H  into  any  number,  of  parts,  make 
the  line  F  G  equal  to  the  development  or  stretch-out  of 
the  circle ;  produce  the  lines  B  F  A  and  G  H  until 
they  intersect  each  other,  and  at  their  intersection  w^ill 
be  the  point  from  which  to  draw  the  radiating  lines,  1  1 
2  2,  etc. ;  join  G  B,  then  parallel  to  G  B,  draw  the  lines  from 
the  points  1  2,  etc.,  to  the  line  F  B,  and  from  the  line  F  B 
parallel  to  the  line  B  D,  to  intersect  the  line  D  F,  then  the 
lines  from  A  to  the  line  F  D  will  give  the  elevation 
to  draw  the  raking-moulding  for  any  of  the  diverging  lines 
shown  on  the  plan ;  the  line  A  1,  on  the  elevation,  will  be 
the  pitch  to  draw  the  raking-mould  standing  on  the  line  A  J 
on  the  plan,  and  the  line  A  5,  would  be  the  pitch  to  draw 


TTat©  16. 


SPLAYED  WORK. 


PLATE   17. 

Figures  1,  2  and  3. — Shows  the  method  of  finding  the  lines 
for  the  face  and  edges  of  a  piece  set  to  a  given  angle,  ohlique 
to  the  base,  to  nnitre  over  acute,  obtuse,  or  right-angles. 

Figure  1. — Let  A  B  C  be  the  plan  of  an  acute-angle,  B  D 
the  line  of  intersection,  and  E  the  piece  placed  oblique  to 
the  base.  To  find  the  line  for  the  face  of  the  piece,  place  one 
point  of  the  compass  at  I,  and  describe  the  arc  A  C  ;  draw 
the  tangential  line  Gr  H  parallel  to  A  B ;  join  B  I)  and  H  D, 
then  in  the  angle  G  H  D  will  be  found  the  bevel  for  the  face 
of  the  piece  E.  To  find  the  line  to  cut  the  edge,  place  one 
point  of  the  compass  at  I,  and  describe  the  arc  J  K ;  draw 
the  tangential  line  K  L  parallel  to  A  B,  join  L  D ;  then  in 
the  angle  K  L  D  will  be  found  the  bevel  for  the  edge  of  the 
piece  E, 

The  Plate  will  be  found  very  useful  to  workman,  in  con- 
structing boxes  where  the  sides  are  required  to  be  placed 
oblique  to  the  vase. 

Figures  2  and  3. — Exhibits  the  application  of  the  same 
principle  to  an  obtuse  and  right-angle,  and  a  bare  inspection 
of  the  Figure  will  show  that  the  process  is  precisely  the  same 
as  shown  at  Fig.  1. 

Figure  4. — Represents  a  method  of  finding  the  lines  for  a 
butt-joint  when  required,  instead  of  a  mitre  and  is  the  same 
principle  shown  at  Plate  9,  for  finding  the  backing  of  a  hip- 
rafter. 


Plate   17 


CARPENTRY.  39 


OF   POSTS. 

According  to  the  experiments  of  Rondelet,  when  the  height 
of  a  square  post  is  less  than  about  seven  or  eight  times  the 
side  of  its  base,  it  cannot  be  bent  bj  any  pressure  less  than 
that  which  would  crush  it.  The  internal  mechanism  of  the 
resisting  forces,  when  timber  yields  by  crushing,  is  not 
exactly  understood.  In  timber  the  resistance  to  crushing  is 
less  than  the  cohesive  force.  The  resistance  of  timber  to 
crushing  appears  to  increase  in  a  higher  ratio  than  that  of  the 
area  of  its  section. 

The  load  a  piece  of  timber  will  bear,  when  pressed  in  the 
direction  of  its  length,  without  risk  of  being  crushed,  may  be 
found  by  the  following  rule : 

Multiply  the  area  of  the  piece  of  timber,  in  inches,  by  the 
weight  that  is  capable  of  crushing  a  square  inch  of  the  same 
kind  of  wood,  then,  one-fourth  of  the  product  will  give  the 
load  in  pounds  that  the  piece  would  bear  with  safety. 

If  the  area  that  w^ould  support  a  given  weight  be  required, 
divide  four  times  the  weight  by  the  number  of  pounds  that 
would  crush  a  square  inch,  and  the  quotient  is  the  area  in 
inches. 

The  length  should  never  exceed  ten  times  the  side  of  the 
section  to  give  the  above  results ;  for  when  the  length  is 
greater  than  about  ten  times  the  thickness,  the  piece  will 
bend  before  it  crushes. 


40  SPLAYED   WOBK. 


PLATE   18. 

Figure  I. — Exhibits  an  elevation  of  a  box  whose  sides  are 
of  diiferent  inclinations.  Figure  2,  the  plan  of  the  box  E  F, 
and  D  C  H  the  lines  of  the  mitres.  The  bevels  for  the  sides 
are  shown  at  1,  2  and  3.  Those  for  the  edges  at  Figures  4, 
5  and  6.  Further  explanations  are  omitted,  believing  that 
the  workman,  after  an  inspection  of  the  Figures,  will  be  able 
to  construct  any  thing  of  the  kind  when  required. 

Figures  3  and  4. — Shows  the  method  of  finding  the  lines 
for  mitreing  together  a  grain-mill  hopper  /  also  to  find 
the  angle-pieces  that  are  required  to  secure  the  pieces  together 
at  their  intersections. — Let  A  B  C  D,  Fig  4,  be  the  plan  of 
the  angular  box,  and  Fig.  3  the  elevation,  with  one  point  of 
the  compass  on  E,  describe  the  dotted  curve  to  intersect  the 
line  B  C  in  F ;  draw  the  tangential  line  F  G  parallel  to  D  C  ; 
produce  A  D  to  G,  join  I  H  and  I  F,  then  I  H  F  will  be  the 
form  and  size  of  one  side  of  the  grain-mill  hopper  required  ; 
and  as  it  is  usual  to  place  the  sides  at  an  angle  of  45°,  in  this 
case,  the  same  bevel  shown  at  F  for  the  sides  will  answer  for 
the  edges.  The  method  shown  on  the  plan  for  finding  the 
angle-piece,  also  shows  a  butt-joint  and  are  obtained  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  for  finding  the  backing  of  hip- 
rafters  on  Plate  9. 


Plate  18. 


CAKPENTRY. 

41 

WEIGHT  IN   POUNDS 

OF     CUBIC 

FOOT     OF 

WOOD     AND     STONE. 

WOOD. 

STONE. 

Apple-tree, 

49.6 

Flint, 

163.2 

Ash,      . 

-    52.9 

Blue  Granite, 

164.1 

Birch, 

33.2 

Lime  Stone, 

199. 

American  Cedar,    - 

-    d5.1 

Grindstone,     - 

134. 

Elm, 

42. 

Slate  Stone, 

167. 

White  Pine,  - 

-   35.6 

Marble,  - 

170. 

Yellow  Pine, 

41.1 

Free  Stone, 

150. 

Mahogany, 

-   66.5 

African  Marble, 

169.2 

Maple, 

47. 

Egyptian  Marble. 

166.8 

Mulberry, 

-   56.1 

Italian  Marble, 

166.1 

Oak,  -         -         -         - 

58-74 

Roman  Marble,  - 

- 

172.2 

Live  Oak, 

-   70. 

OTHER    SUBSTANCES. 

Cast  Iron, 

450.55 

Air, 

07529 

Wrought  Iron,     - 

-      486.65 

Steam, 

C3689 

Steel, 

489.8 

Loose  Earth  or  Sand, 

95. 

Copper, 

-      555. 

Common  Soil,  - 

124. 

Lead, 

708.75 

Strong  Soil, 

127. 

Brass, 

-      537.75 

Clay,       ■         -        - 

135. 

Tin,          : 

456. 

Clay  and  Stones, 

160. 

Salt  Water,  (Sea,) 

-       64.3 

Cork, 

15. 

Fresh  Water, 

62.5 

Brick,      - 
Tallow,      - 

125. 
59. 

6 

. 

42  SPLAYED   WORK. 


PLATE    19. 

Exhibits  a  inethod  of  constructing  a  circidar  desk  /  also  a 
plan  and  elevation  of  a  circnlar  seat. — Fig.  1  shows  the 
elevation.  Fig.  2  the  plan  of  the  circular  desk.  Produce 
the  lines  A  H  and  F  H  indefinitely,  draw  the  line  H  J,  the 
inclination  of  the  desk.  With  one  point  of  the  compass  in 
H  describe  the  dotted  line  from  L  and  produce  the  same  to 
K  P;  then  with  K  P  for  radius,  and  one  point  of  the  com- 
pass in  K,  describe  the  curve  line  P  F.  At  right-angles  to 
H  J,  draw  the  line  F  B  tangential  to  the  curve  P  F,  then  B 
F  gives  the  radius  to  describe  the  rib  standing  over  the 
chord  line  A  E  on  the  plan.  The  same  method  is  used  for 
finding  the  radius  for  the  rib  over  the  chord  line  C  D.  If 
any  more  ribs  are  required,  produce  the  lines  H  E  and  H  A, 
and  at  the  intersection  of  the  chord  line,  draw  the  radius 
parallel  to  the  line  E  I,  and  where  it  intersects  the  line  F  G, 
will  be  the  point  to  place  one  point  of  the  compass  to  describe 
the  rib. 

Figure  3. — Shows  the  side  of  the  piece  to  be  bent  to  form 
the  inclining  circular  front.  The  radius  to  describe  the 
circles  are  taken  from  the  line  H  J,  as  shown  on  the  plan. 
The  radiated  lines  shown  on  the  piece,  exhibits  the  method 
of  grooving  for  the  keys  required  to  shape  the  piece. 

Figures  4  and  5. — Shows  the  plan  and  elevation  of  a 
circular  seat,  with  an  inclining  back,  and  the  method  of  find- 
ing the  curved  pieces  bent  around  and  forming  a  continuous 
back  to  a  circular  seat  in  such  a  manner  that  the  edges  shall 
be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  seat.  In  explanation,  it  is 
simply  necessary  to  say  that  the  principle  is  the  same  as  that 
applied  to  finding  a  veneer  for  a  Gothic-head  jamb,  splayed 
alike' all  around. 


Plate   19. 


CARPENTKY.  43 


ADHESION  OF  NAILS. 

Every  carpenter  is  familiar  with  the  use  of  the  nail,  and 
possesses  a  practical  knowledge,  more  or  less  accurate,  of  the 
force  of  adhesion  of  different  nails,  and  in  different  substan- 
ces, so  as  to  decide,  without  difficulty,  what  number,  and  of 
what  length,  may  be  sufficient  to  fasten  together  substances 
of  various  shapes,  and  subject  to  various  strains.  But 
interesting  as  this  subject  unquestionably  is,  it  has  not  been 
till  very  recently  that  the  necessary  experiments  have  been 
made  to  determine,  1st,  the  adhesive  force  of  different  nails 
when  driven  into  wood  of  different  species,  2d,  the  actual 
weight,  without  impulse,  necessary  to  force  a  nail  a  given 
depth  ;  and  3d,  the  force  required  to  extract  the  nail  when  so 
driven.  The  obtaining  of  this  useful  knowledge  was  reserved 
for  Mr.  B.  Bevan,  a  gentleman  well  known  in  the  mechanical 
and  scientific  world  for  the  accuracy  with  which  his  experi- 
ments are  conducted. 

Mr.  Bevan  observes,  that  the  theoretical  investigation 
points  out  an  equality  of  resistance  to  the  entrance  and 
extraction  of  a  nail,  supposing  the  thickness  to  be  invariable; 
but  as  the  general  shape  of  nails  is  tapering  towards  the 
points,  the  resistance  of  entrance  necesarily  becomes  greater 
than  that  of  extraction  ;  in  some  experiments  he  found  the 
ratio  to  b^  about  6  to  5. 

The  percussive  force  required  to  drive  the  common  six- 
penny nail  to  the  depth  of  one  inch  and  a  half  into  dry 
Christiana  deal,  with  a  cast  iron  weight  of  6*275  lbs.  was  four 
blows  or  strokes  falling  freely  the  space  of  12  inches  ;  and  the 
steady  pressure  to  produce  the  same  effect  was  400  lbs. 


'ir  ■  "T  r  I — r  - 


44  CIRCULAR    MOULDINGS 


MiTREiNG  Circular   Mouldings. 


PLATE  20. 

Shows  the  w^ethod  of  mitreing  Circular-monldings. — Fig. 
1  and  2  shows  the  method  of  mitreing  a  tangential  moulding 
into  a  circular  moulding. 

Figure  3. — Shows  a  straight  moulding  mitred  into  a  circle 
at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  line  drawn  through  the  centre 
of  the  circle. 

Figure  4. — Shows  how  nearly  impossible  it  is  to  perform 
work  of  this  kind  without  the  use  of  the  compass,  for 
describing  the  intersecting  line. 


Plate  20. 


CARPENTRY.  45 


ADHESION  OF  NAILS. 

A  sixpenny  nail  driven  into  dry  elm,  to  the  depth  of  one 
inch  across  the  grain,  required  a  pressure  of  327  pounds  to 
extract  it ;  and  the  same  nail,  driven  endways,  or  longitud- 
inally into  the  same  wood,  was  extracted  with  a  force  of  257 
pounds. 

The  same  nail  driven  two  inches  endways  into  dry  Christ- 
iana deal,  was  drawn  by  a  force  of  257  pounds ;  and  to  draw 
out  one  inch,  under  like  circumstances,  took  87  pounds  only. 
The  relative  adhesion,  therefore,  in  the  same  wood,  when 
driven  transversely  and  longitudinally,  is  100  to  78,  or  about 
4  to  3  in  dry  elm ;  and  100  to  46,  or  about  2  to  1  in  deal ; 
and  in  like  circumstances,  the  relative  adhesion  to  elm  and 
deal  is  as  2  or  3  to  1, 

The  progressive  depths  of  a  sixpenny  nail  into  dry  Christ- 
iana deal  by  simple  pressure  were  as  follows : — 

One   quarter  of   an  inch,  a  pressure  of    24  lbs. 

Half  an  inch,         -  -         -  76  

One  inch,  -         -         -         -      .    -     235  

One  inch  and  a  half,       -         -         -         400  

Two  inches, 610  

In  the  above  experiments,  great  care  was  taken  by  Mr. 
Bevan  to  apply  the  weight  steadily,  and  towards  the  conclu- 
sion of  each  experiment,  the  additions  did  not  exceed  10  lbs. 
at  one  time,  with  a  moderative  interval  between,  generally 
about  one  minute,  sometimes  10  or  20  minutes.  In  other 
species  of  wood,  the  requisite  force  to  extract  the  nail  was 
different.  Thus,  to  extract  a  common  sixpenny  nail  from  a 
depth  of  one  inch  out  of 

Dry  Oak,  required         -         -         -         507    lbs. 

Dry  Beech, 667    

G-reen  Sycamore,  -         -         -         -         313 

From  these  experiments,  we  may  infer  that  a  common  six- 
penny nail,  driven  two  inches  into  oak,  would  require  a  force 
of  more  than  half  a  ton  to  extract  it  by  a  steady  force. 


46  HAND    RAILING. 


HAND    RAILING 


The  method  here  presented  for  squaring  the  wreath  upon 
Geometrical  principles,  without  the  use  of  falling  moulds  for 
small  openings,  from  5  to  20  in.,  for  straight  flights  and  plat- 
form stairs,  is  the  least  difficult  to  comprehend,  of  any  in  use. 

PLATE  21. 

Exhibits  the  elevation  of  a  platform  stairs  from  first  to 
second  floor.  Fig.  1  shows  the  method  of  finding  the  point 
to  bore  for  the  short  baluster  on  the  second  step,  when,  you 
have  the  length  of  the  newel  and  short  baluster  given.  On 
the  pitch-board  A  C  B,  make  C  A  equal  the  difference  in 
the  lengths  of  the  newel  post  and  short  baluster,  say  six 
inches ;  place  the  point  B  on  the  line  of  the  centre  of  the 
newel  post,  and  the  line  drawn  from  A  will  be  the  under 
side  of  the  cap,  and  C  A  produced  to  the  rail  will  give  the 
point  to  bore  for  the  first  short  baluster. 

Figure  2. — Shows  the  plan  for  the  hand  railing  over  a 
seven  inch  cylinder.  The  risers  are  placed  at  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  cylinder  and  string-pieces,  as  shown  on 
the  elevation. 

Figure  3. — Shows  the  method  of  forming  the  face-mould 
with  a  cord  or  string,  as  shown  on  Plate  i^,  Fig.  1,  and  to  be 
cut  square  through  the  plank. 

Figure  4. — Exhibits  the  piece  sawed  with  the  bevel,  shown 
at  D,  applied  to  the  centre  of  the  plank ;  then  from  the 
centre  set  of  each  side  one-half  of  the  rail  which  leaves  a 
corner,  to  be  removed  from  the  out  and  inside  of  the  piece ; 
tack  the  mould  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  corner  to  be 
removed  on  the  out  and  inside  of  the  piece,  and  form  the 
wreath  as  shown  at  Fig.  5,  which  is  an  end  view  of  the.  hand- 
rail required  ready  for  moulding.  The  easing  on  second  fioor 
terminates  one-half  the  height  of  the  riser  above  the  point 
to  bore  for  the  short  baluster. 


Plate  21 


Fi^.4.. 


0 

I© 


e-^e-  -e 


ria.2. 


M-'0-'-0-± 


OAKPENTRY. 


47 


ADHESION   OF   SCREWS. 

A  common  screw,  of  one-fifth  of  an  inch,  was  found  to 
have  an  adhesive  force  of  about  three  times  that  of  a  six- 
penny nail. 


ADHESION  OF  IRON  PINS. 

The  force  necessary  to  break  or  tear  out  a  half-inch  iron 
pin,  applied  in  the  manner  of  a  pin  to  a  tenon  in  the  mortice, 
has  likewise  obtained  the  attention  of  the  same  celebrated 
experimentalist.  The  thickness  of  the  board  was  0.87  inch, 
and  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  the  hole  from  the  end  of 
the  board  1*05  inch.     The  force  required  was  916. 

As  the  strength  of  a  tenon  from  the  pin-hole  may  be  con- 
sidered in  proportion  to  the  distance  from  the  end,  and  also 
as  the  thickness,  we  may,  for  this  species  of  wood,  obtain 
the  breaking  force  in  pounds  nearly,  by  multiplying  together 
one  thousand  times  the  distance  of  the  hole  from  the  end  by 
the  thickness  of  the  tenon  in  inches. 


LENGTH  OF  IRON  NAILS 

AND  NUMBER  TO  A  POUND. 


SIZE. 

LENGTH. 

NO. 

SIZE. 

LENGTH. 

NO. 

s-^ 

liin. 

420 

lO-i 

3    in. 

65 

4d 

l^in. 

270 

12'J 

3iin. 

52 

5^ 

If  in. 

220 

20*^ 

3|-in. 

28 

6^ 

2    in. 

175 

SO'i 

4    in. 

24 

8^ 

24- in. 

100 

40^ 

4iin. 

20 

Lead  weighs  709  lbs.  to  cubic  foot. 
Water  weighs  62^  lbs.  to  cubic  foot. 


48  HAND   BAILING. 


PLATE  22. 

Exhibits  a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  continued  hand-railing 
from  first  to  third  fljoor. — On  the  plan,  Fig.  1,  is  shown  the 
baluster  placed  flush  with  the  face  of  the  riser,  from  the 
centre  will  be  seen  the  dotted  line  drawn  parallel  to  the  face 
of  the  riser,  cutting  the  under  side  of  the  rail  at  A,  then 
from  A  to  B  ;  the  underside  of  the  level-rail  should  be  equal 
to  half  the  height  of  the  riser,  or  second  flight.  The  contin- 
uation of  the  level-rail  up  the  second  flight  is  shown  over 
the  plan  Fig.  2  ;  the  dotted  line  from  the  centre  of  baluster 
shows  the  point  to  bore  for  the  first  short  baluster,  and  should 
be  half  the  height  of  the  rise,  from  the  lower  side  of  the  level- 
rail.  The  method  of  finding  the  mould  for  the  wreaths,  is 
the  same  as  shown  on  Plate  21. 

In  order  to  continue  the  same  inclination  around  the  curve 
and  preserve  the  same  thickness  of  plank  for  the  wreath,  in 
large  openings,  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  risers  in  the 
cylinders,  as  shown  at  Fig.  3,  the  plan  of  a  twelve  inch 
cylinder.  To  find  the  position  of  the  risers,  draw  the  tangen- 
tial A  B  indefinitely,  from  the  point  B,  drop  the  lines  B  D 
and  B  E,  (the  inclination  or  rake  of  the  stairs,)  above  and 
below  draw  the  parallel  lines,  showing  the  thickness  of  the 
rail.  ]^ow  to  find  their  position,  make  the  line  F  G,  equal 
the  height  of  the  rise  and  parallel  to  B  A ;  produce  the 
line  F  G  to  H,  then  where  the  line  G  H  cuts  the  cylinder 
will  be  the  points  for  the  risers.  Fig.  4  is  an  elevation  of 
the  rail  E,  and  D  represents  what  is  termed  the  shank,  or 
straight  wood,  and  B  the  wreaths ;  the  width  of  the  rail 
determines  the  thickness  of  plank  for  the  wTeath  and  cas- 
ings. 


Plato  22 


Ji'V 


FJQ.  2 


Q, 


B--- 


--e--o- -"  iio  o 


Tig.l. 


V— - 


F^y 


CAKPENTRY.  49 


ADHESION   OF   GLUE. 

Mr.  Bevan  ^lued  together  by  tlie  ends  two  cylinders  of  dry 
ash-wood,  one-fifth  of  an  inch  diameter  and  about  eight  inches 
long;  after  they  had  been  glued  together  24  hours,  they 
required  a  force  of  1260  pounds  to  separate  them ;  and  as 
the  area  of  the  circular  ends  of  the  cylinders  were  1.76  inches, 
it  follows  that  the  force  of  Y15  pounds  would  be  required  to 
separate  one  square  inch. 

It  is  right  to  observe,  that  the  glue  used  in  this  experiment 
was  newly  made,  and  the  season  very  dry.  For  in  some 
former  experiments  on  this  substance,  made  in  the  winter 
season,  and  upon  some  glue  which  had  frequently  made,  with 
occasional  additions  of  glue  and  water,  he  obtained  a  result 
of  350  to  560  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

The  present  experiment,  however,  was  conducted  upon  a 
larger  scale,  and  with  greater  care  in  the  direction  of  the 
resultant  force,  so  that  it  might  be,  as  near  as  practicable,  in 
a  line  passing  at  right  angles  through  the  centres  of  the  sur- 
faces in  contact.  The  pressure  was  applied  gradually,  and 
was  sustained  two  or  three  minutes  before  it  separated. 

Upon  examining  the  separated  surfaces,  the  glue  appeared 
to  be  very  thin,  and  did  not  entirely  cover  the  wood,  so  that 
the  actual  adhesion  of  glue  must  be  something  greater  than 
715  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

Mr.  Bevan  also  tried  the  lateral  cohesion  of  fir-wood,  from 
a  Scotch  fir  of  his  own  planting,  cut  down  in  the  autumn, 
sawn  into  boards,  and,  at  the  time  of  experiment,  quite  dry 
and  seasoned.  The  force  required  to  separate  the  wood  was 
562  pounds  to  to  the  square  inch  ;  consequently,  if  two  pieces 
of  this  wood  had  been  well  glued  together,  the  wood  would 
have  yielded  in  its  substance  before  the  glue. 

For  a  subsequent  experiment,  made  on  solid  glue,  the  cohe- 
sive force  was  found  to  be  4000  pounds  per  square  inch  ; 
from  which  it  may  be  inferred,  that  the  application  of  this 
substance  as  a  cement  is  susceptible  of  improvement. 


ORNAMENTAL   WORK. 


PLATE  23. 

Exhibits  the  method  of  constructing  a  Corinthian  truss.  A 
represents  the  eye  of  its  volute  at  large,  with  tlie  centres 
numbered  on  which  the  curves  are  described.  B  and  C  are 
Geometrical  views  showing  the  front  and  side  elevation.  A 
careful  inspection  of  which  will  enable  the  workman  to  con- 
struct one  of  any  size  he  may  require. 


I»late    23 


The   Corinlhicui    TruJs    e^ plain  il. 


.?       *      J      e       7      <*/ 


'^ 


If. 


A    PRACTICAL    AND    MATHEMATICAL 

DEMONSTRATION 

OF  findin:g  the  circumference  and  squaring  the  circle,  when 

THE    diameter  IS  GIYEN. 


IT  I  I  11  I  I  I  r 


/      Firf.2. 


M   I   I  t  M  IJ-J- 


lij.z. 


M  1 1  M  1 1 1 1: 


^=L  XJ  I_i  EI  S  . 

1.  Eleven -fourteenth  (ij)  of  the  diameter  will  give  one-fourth  (i) 
of  the  circumference. 

2.  One-fourth  (J)  of  the  circumference  multiplied  by  the  diameter 
will  give  the  area  of  the  .circle. 

3.  Eleven  fourteenths  (^|-)  of  the  area  of  the  circle  will  give  the 
area  of  a  square  whose  sides  are  equal  to  the  circumference. 

4.  Seven-elevenths  (y'L)  of  the  area  of  the  circle  will  give  the  area 
of  an  inscribed  square. 

5.  One-quarter  of  the  circumference  multiplied  by  irne  (9)  will 
give  the  side  of  an  inscribed  square. 

6.  To  find  the  diameter  when  the  circumfereuce  is  given,  multiply 
by  seven  (7)  and  divide  by  twenty-two  (22.) 

To  find  the  circumference  and  diameter  when  the  area  is  given. 
Eleven-fourteenths  (^J)  of  the  area  gives  the  area  of  a  square  whose 
sides  are  equal  to  the  circumference,  the  square  root  of  which  will 
give  one-fourth  of  the  circumference ;  to  find  the  diameter,  proceed 
as  in  rule  6. 

The  Cut  represents  a  practical  method  of  finding  the  circumference 
when  the  diameter  is  given  : 

Suppose  Fig.  J  to  be  a  wheel  fourteen  (14)  feet  or  fourteen  (14) 
inches  in  diameter,  and  A  B  the  plane.  Then  with  the  point  on  the 
plane  at  A,  roll  the  wheel  over  until  the  point  at  A  strikes  the  plane 


52  MATHEMATICAL     DEMONSTRATION. 

at  B,  which  will  be  the  circumference  of  the  wheel.  Then  divide 
the  distance  on  the  plane  between  A.  and  B  into  forty -four  (44) 
parts,  and  fourteen  (14)  of  those  parts  will  be  the  exact  diameter  of 
the  wheel,  and  eleven  (11)  of  those  parts  will  equal  one-fourth  (J)  of 
the  circumference,  which  is  a  practical  demonstration  and  proves  that 
eleven-fourteenths  ({^)  of  the  diameter  gives  one-fourth  (J)  of  the 
circumference. 

A  mathematical  proof  is  that  one-fourth  (^)  of  the  circumference 
multiplied  by  the  diameter  gives  the  area  of  the  circle;  seven 
elevenths  {^\)  of  the  area  of  the  circle  will  give  the  area  of  an 
inscribed  square,  as  shown  at  Fig.  1 ;  eleven-fourteenths  (^)  of  the 
area  of  the  circle  gives  the  area  of  a  square  whose  sides  are  equal 
to  the  circuference,  as  shown  at  Fig.  2. 

And  finally  that  a  quadrialateral  figure  fourteen  by  eleven  (14  x  11) 
as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  a  square  containing  the  same  area  as  the  circle  ; 
fourteen  (14)  being  the  diameter  of  the  circle  given  and  eleven  (11) 
one-fourth  of  the  circumference,  which  is  squaring  the  circle,  and  its 
area. 

These  rules  give  the  exact  circumference  of  the  circle  in  feet  and 
inches  where  the  diameters  are  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.  multiplied  b}^  7,  with  as 
much  certainty  as  you  can  find  the  root  of  a  perfect  number,  and 
are  original  with  me,  but  since  their  discovery  I  have  learned  that 
Archimedes,  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher,  discovered  that  eleven- 
fourteenths  of  the  diameter  gives  one-fourth  of  the  circumference, 
and  had  Archimedes  given  the  practical  and  mathematical  proofs  of 
the  fact  which  we  claim  to  have  done,  they  undoubtedly  would  have 
been  adopted  and  in  general  use  in  all  of  our  institutions  of  learning. 


Miscellaneous  Rules. 

The  greatest  force  produced  by  the  wind  on  a  vertical  wall, 
is  equal  to  40  lbs.  to  the  square  foot. 

When  a  summer  or  beam  has  settled  one  fortieth  of  its 
length,  it  is  liable  to  break. 

Lathes  for  plastering  will  lay  48  feet  to  the  bundle,  equal 
to  6^  square  yards. 

One  barrel  of  lime  to  one  cubic  yard  of  sand,  will  plaster 
17  square  yards  with  two  coats. 

It  requires  14  bricks  to  lay  1  foot  in  length  and  1  foot  in 
heiglith  of  an  8  inch  wall ;  20  bricks  for  a  12  incli  wall,  and 
27  bricks  for  a  16  inch  walk 

An  acre  of  ground  is  208^-  feet  square,  and  contains  43,560 
square  feet. 

In  water,  sound  passes  4,766  feet  per  second,  in  air,  1,146 
feet  per  second. 

A  Winchester  bushel  is  18^  inches  in  diameter,  8  inches 
deep,  and  contains  2150f  cubic  inches. 

A  box  16  X  16  inches  square  8|-  inches  deep  will  hold  a 
bushel. 

A  box  12  X  12  inches  square,  7^  inches  deep  will  hold  half 
bushel. 

A  box  9x9  inches  square,  6f  inches  deep  will  hold  one 
peck. 

A  box  7x7  inches  square  5j  inches  deep,  will  hold  4  qts. 
or  half  peck. 

A  pile  of  wood  8  feet  long,  and  4  feet  high,  contains  1  cord. 

A  cistern  5  feet  diameter,  and  6  feet  deep,  w^ill  hold  30 
barrels,  of  32  gallons  each. 

A  cistern  6  feet  diameter,  and  6  feet  deep,  will  hold  ^39 
barrels. 

A  cistern  7  feet  diameter,  and  6  feet  deep,  will  hold  54 
barrels. 


54 


MISCELLANEOUS    RULES. 


At  the  depth  of  45  feet  the  temperature  of  the  earth  is 
uniform  throughout  the  year. 

Dimensions  of  drawings  for  patents  in  the  United  States, 
8.5  X  12  inches. 

The  lap  of  slates  varies  from  2  to  4  inches  ;  the  standard 
is  assumed  to  be  3  inches. 

The  pitch  of  a  slate  roof  should  not  be  less  than  1  inch  in 
height,  to  4  inch  in  length. 

According  to  the  last  census,  there  are  2,000  Architects, 
350,000  Carpenters,  45,000  Cabinet  makers,  and  46,000 
Carriage  makers  in  the  United  States. 

The  strength  of  a  horse  is  equivalent  to  that  of  5  men,  the 
daily  allowance  of  water  for  a  horse  should  be  4  gallons. 

Elasticty  and  Strength. — The  component  parts  of  a  rigid 
body  adhere  to  each  other  with  a  force  which  is  termed 
Cohesion. 

Elasticty  is  the  resistance  which  a  body  opposes  to  a 
change  of  form. 

Strength  is  the  resistance  which  a  body  opposes  to  a  per- 
manent separation  of  its  parts. 

A  horse  can  draw  upon  a  plank  road  three  times  the  load 
that  he  can  upon  an  ordinary  broken  stone  or  macadamized 
road. 


AMERICAN  VALUATION  OF  FOREIGN  MONEY. 

A  British  pound  sterling  is  increased  from  $4.84  to  $4.86.65  ; 
the  French,  Swiss  and  Belgian  francs  from  18.06  to  19.03 
with  a  simihir  increase  on  the  Greek  drachma  and  Spanish 
peseta.  The  Portuguese  milreis  will  be  decreased  in  valua- 
tion from  $1.12  to  $1.08.47. 


Terms  Used  in  Carpentry. 

Abutment. — The  junction  or  meeting  of  two  pieces  of  tim- 
ber, of  which  the  fibres  of  the  one  extend  perpendicular  to 
the  joint,  and  those  of  tlie  other  parallel  to  it. 

Areis. — The  line  of  concourse  or  meeting  of  two  surfaces. 

Back  of  a  Hand-rail. — The  upper  side  of  it. 

Back  of  a  Hip. — The  upper  edge  of  a  rafter,  between  the 
two  sides  of  a  hipped  roof,  formed  to  an  angle,  so  as  to  range 
with  the  rafters  on  each  side  of  it. 

Back-Shutters  or  Back-Flaps. — Additional  breadths 
hinged  to  the  front  shutters  for  covering  the  aperture  com- 
pletely, when  required  to  be  shut. 

Back  of  a  Window. — The  board,  or  wainscoting  between 
the  sash-frame  and  the  floor,  uniting  with  the  two  elbows, 
and  forming  part  of  the  finish  of  a  room.  When  framed,  it 
has  commonly  a  single  pannel,  with  mouldings  on  the  framing, 
corresponding  with  the  doors,  shutters,  &c.,  in  the  apartment 
in  which  it  is  fixed. 

Basil. — The  sloping  edge  of  a  chisel,  or  of  the  iron  of  a 
plane. 

Batten. — A  scantling  of  stuff  from  two  inches  to  seven 
inches  in  breadth,  and  from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  and  a 
half  in  thickness. 

Baulk. — A  piece  of  fir  or  deal,  from  four  to  ten  inches 
square,  being  the  trunk  of  a  tree  of  that  species  of  wood, 
generally  brought  to  a  square,  for  the  use  of  building. 

Bead. — A  round  moulding  commonly  made  upon  the  edge 
of  a  piece  of  stuff'.  Of  beads  there  are  two  kinds  ;  one  flush 
with  the  surface,  called  a  quirk-head,  and  the  other  raised, 
called  a  cock-head. 

Beam.— A  horizontal  timber,  used  to  resist  a  force  or 
weight ;  as  a  tie-heam,  where  it  acts  as  a  string  or  chain,  by 
its  tension  ;  as  a  collar-beam,  where  it  acts  by  compression  • 


56 


TERMS    USED   IN    CARFENTKY. 


as  a  hressummer^  where  it  resists  a  transverse  insisting 
weight. 

Bearer. — Any  thing  used' by  way  of  support  to  another. 

Bearing. — The  distance  in  which  a  beam  or  rafter  is 
suspended  in  the  clear  :  thus,  if  a  piece  of  timber  rests  upon 
two  opposite  walls,  the  span  of  the  void  is  called  the  hearing^ 
and  not  the  whole  length  of  the  timber. 

Bench. — A  platform  supported  on  four  legs,  and  used  for 
planing,  upon  etc. 

Bevel. — One  side  is  said  to  be  bevelled  with  respect  to 
another,  when  the  angle  formed  by  these  two  sides  is  greater 
or  less  than  a  right  angle. 

Bird's  Mouth. — An  interior  angle,  formed  on  the  end  of  a 
piece  of  timber,  so  that  it  may  rest  iirmly  upon  the  exterior 
angle  of  another  piece. 

Blade. — Any  part  of  a  tool  that  is  broad  and  thin ;  as  the 
blade  of  an  axe,  of  an  adze,  of  a  chisel,  &c. :  but  the  blade 
of  a  saw  is  generally  called  the  plate. 

Blockings. — Small  pieces  of  wood,  fitted  in,  or  glued,  or 
fixed,  to  the  interior  angle  of  two  boards  or  other  pieces,  in 
order  to  give  strength  to  the  joint. 

BoARD.^^A  substance  of  wood  contained  between  two 
parallel  planes :  as  Avhen  the  baulk  is  divided  into  several 
pieces  by  the  pit-saw,  the  pieces  are  called  hoards.  The 
section  of  boards  is  sometimes,  however,  of  a  triangular,  or 
rather  trapezoidal  form  ;  that  is,  with  one  edge  very  thin  ; 
these  are  cdMo^di  feather-edge  hoards. 

Bond-Timbers. — Horizontal  pieces,  built  in  stone  or  brick 
walls,  for  strengthening  them,  and  securing,  the  battening, 
lath,  and  plaster,  etc. 

Bottom  Rail. — The  lowest  rail  of  a  door. 

Boxings  of  a  Window. — The  two  ca^es,  one  on  each  side 
of  a  window,  into  which  the  shutters  are  folded. 

Brace. — A  piece  of  slanting  timber,  used  in  truss-parti- 
tions, or  in  framed  roofs,  in  order  to  form  a  triangle,  and 
thereby  rendering  the  frame  immovable  ;    when  a  brace  is 


TEEMS    USED    IN    CARPENTRY.  57 


used  by  way  of  support  to  a  rafter,  it  is  called  a  strut..  Braces, 
in  partitions  and  spanroofs,  are  always,  or  should  be,  disposed 
in  pairs,  and  placed  in  opposite  directions. 

Brace  and  Bits. — The  same  as  stocTc  mid  lits^  as  explained 
hereafter. 

Brad. — A  small  nail,  having  no  head  except  on  one  edge. 
The  intention  is  to  drive  it  within  the  surface  of  the  wood 
by  means  of  a  hammer  and  punch,  and  to  fill  the  cavity  flush 
to  the  surface  with  putty. 

Breaking  Down,  in  sawing,  is  dividing  the  baulk  into 
boards  or  planks;  but,  if  planks  are  sawed  longitudinally, 
through  their  thickness,  the  saw^-way  is  called  a  ripping-cut 
and  the  former  a  hrealcmg-cut. 

To  Break-in. — To  cut  or  break  a  hole  in  brick-work,  with 
the  ripping-chisel,  for  inserting  timber,  etc. 

Breaking  Joint. — Is  the  joint  formed  by  the  meeting  of 
several  heading  joints  in  one  continued  line,  which  is  some- 
times the  case  in  folded  doors. 

Bressummer  or  Breastsummer. — A  beam  supporting  a 
superincumbent  part  of  an  exterior  wall,  and  running  longi- 
tudinally below  that  part. — See  Summer. 

Bridged  Gutters. — Gutters  made  with  boards,  supported 
below  with  bearers,  and  covered  over  with  lead. 

Bridging- Floors. — Floors  in  which  hridging  joists  are 
used. 

Bridging  Joists. — Tlie  smallest  beams  in  naked  flooring, 
for  supporting  the  boarding  for  walking  upon. 

Bu'iTiNG- Joint. — The  junction  formed  by  the  surfaces  of 
two  pieces  of  wood,  of  which  one  surface  is  pei'pendicular  to 
the  fibres,  and  the  other  in  their  direction,  or  making  with 
them  an  oblique  angle. 

Chamber. — The  convexity  of  a  beam  upon  the  upper  edge, 
in  order  to  prevent  its  becoming  straight  or  concave  by  its 
own  weight,  or  by  the  burden  it  may  have  to  sustain,  in  course 
of  time. 

8 


58  TERMS    USED   IN    CARPENTKY. 

Chamber-Beams. — Those  beams  used  in  the  flats  of  trunca- 
ted roofs,  and  raised  in  the  middle  with  an  obtuse  angle,  for 
discharging  the  rain-water  towards  both  sides  of  the  roof. 

Cantalivers. — Horizontal  rows  of  timber,  projecting  at 
right  angles  from  the  naked  part  of  a  wall,  for  sustaining  the 
eaves  or  otter  mouldings.  Sometimes  they  are  planed  on  the 
horizontal  and  verticle  sides,  and  sometimes  the  carpentry  is 
rough  and  cased  with  joinery. 

Carriage  of  a  Stair. — The  timber-work  which  supports 
the  steps. 

Carcase  of  a  Building. — The  naked  walls,  and  the  rough 
timber-work  of  the  flooring  and  quarter  partitions,  before  the 
building  is  plastered  or  the  floors  laid. 

Carry-up. — A  lerm  used  among  builders  or  workmen, 
denoting  that  the  walls,  or  other  parts,  are  intended  to  be 
built  to  a  certain  given  height;  thus,  the  carpenter  will  say 
to  the  bricklayer.  Carry -up  that  wall ;  carry -up  that  stack  of 
chimneys  \  which  means,  build  up  that  wall  or  stack  of 
chimneys. 

Casting  or  Warping. — The  bending  of  the  surfiices  of  a 
piece  of  wood  from  their  orio^inal  position,  either  by  the 
weight  of  the  wood,  or  by  an  unequal  exposure  to  the  weather 
or  by  unequal  texture  of  the  wood. 

Chamfering. — Cutting  the  edge  of  any  thing,  originally 
right-angled,  aslope  or  bevel. 

Clamp. — A  piece  of  wood  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  thin  board, 
by  mortise  and  tenon,  or  by  groove  and  tongue;  so  that  the 
fibres  of  the  one  piece,  thus  fixed,  traverse  those  of  the  board, 
and  by  this  mean  prevent  it  from  casting:  the  piece  at  the 
end  is  called  a  clanij)  and  the  board  is  said  to  be  clamped. 

Clear  Story  Windows,  are  those  that  have  no  transom. 

Cross-grained  Stuff,  is  that  which  has  its  fibres  running 
in  contrary  positions  to  the  surfaces ;  and  consequently, 
cannot  be  made  perfectly  smooth,  when  planed  in  one  direc- 
tion, without  turning  it,  or  turning  the  plane. 


TERMS    USED    IN    CARPENTRY.  59 

Crown-Post, — The  middle  post  of  a  trussed  roof. — See 
King-Post. 

Curling  Stuff. — That  which  is  occasioned  by  the  winding 
or  coiling  of  the  fibres  round  the  boughs  of  the  tree,  w^hen 
they  begin  to  shoot  from  the  trunk. 

Deal  Timber. — The  timber  of  the  fir-tree,  as  cut  into 
boards,  planks,  etc.,  for  the  use  of  building. 

Discharge. — A  post  trimmed  up  under  a  beam,  or  part  of  a 
building  which  is  weak  or  overcharged  by  weight. 

Door-Frame. — The  surrounding  case  of  a  door,  into  which, 
and  out  of  which,  the  door  shuts  and  opens. 

Dormer,  OR  Dormer  Window. — A  projecting  window^  in 
the  roof  of  a  house  ;  the  glass-frame,  or  casements,  being  set 
vertically,  and  not  in  the  inclined  sides  of  the  roofs:  thus 
dormers  are  distinguished  from  skylights^  which  have  their 
sides  inclined  to  the  horizon. 

Drag. — A  door  is  said  to  drag  when  it  rubs  on  the  floor. 
This  arises  from  the  loosening  of  the  hinges,  or  the  settling 
of  the  building. 

Dragon-Beam. — The  piece  of  timber  which  supports  the 
hip-rafter,  and  bisects  the  angle  formed  by  the  wall-plates. 

Dragon-Piece. — A  beam  besecting  the  wall-plate,  for 
receiving  the  heel  or  foot  of  the  hip-rafters. 

Edging. — Reducing  the  edges  of  ribs  or  rafters,  externally, 
or  internally  so  as  to  range  in  a  plane,  or  in  any  curved  sur- 
face required. 

Enter. — When  the  end  of  a  tenon  is  put  into  a  mortise,  it 
is  said  to  enter  the  mortise. 

Face-Mould. — A  mould  for  drawing  the  proper  figure  of 
a  hand-rail  on  both  sides  of  the  plank;  so  that,  when  cut  by 
a  saw,  held  at  a  required  inclination,  the  two  surfaces  of  the 
rail-piece,  when  laid  in  the  right  position,  will  be  every  where 
perpendicular  to  the  plan. 

Fang. — The  narrow  part  of  the  iron  of  any  instrument 
which  passes  into  the  stock. 

Featiier-edged  Boards.  — Boards,  thicker  at  one  edge  than 


L_ 


60  TERMS    USED    IN    CAKPENTRY. 

the  other,  and  commonly  used  in  the  facing  of  wooden  walls, 
and  for  the  covering  of  inclined  roofs,  etc. 

Fence  of  a  Plane. — A  guard  which  obliges  it  to  work  to 
a  certain  horizontal  breadth  from  the  arris. 

FiLLiNG-iN  Pieces. — Short  timbers  less  than  the  full  length, 
as  the  jack-rafters  of  a  roof,  the  puncheons  or  short  quarters, 
in  partitions,  between  braces  ^nd  sills,  or  headpieces. 

Fine-set. — A  plane  is  said  to  be  fine-set,  when  the  sole  of 
the  plane  so  projects  as  to  take  a  very  thin  broad  shaving. 

Fir  Poles. — Small  trunks  of  fir  trees,  from  ten  to  sixteen 
feet  in  length,  used  in  rustic  buildings  and  out-houses. 

Free  Stuff. — That  timber  or  stuflf  which  is  quite  clean,  or 
without  knots,  and  works  easily,  without  tearing. 

Frowy  Stuff. — The  same  as  free  stufi". 

FuRRiNGS. — Slips  of  timber  nailed  to  joists  or  rafters,  in 
order  to  bring  them  to  a  level,  and  to  range  them  into  a 
straight  surface,  when  the  timbers  are  sagged,  either  by 
casting,  or  by  a  set  which  they  have  obtained  by  their  weight, 
in  length  of  time. 

Girder. — The  principal  beam  in  a  floor  for  supporting  the 
binding-joists. 

Glue. — A  tenacious  viscid  matter,  which  is  used  as  a 
cement,  by  carpenters,  joiners,  etc. 

Glues  are  found  to  differ  very  much  from  each  other,  in 
their  consistence,  color,  taste,  smell,  and  solubility.  Some 
will  dissolve  in  cold  water,  by  agitation ;  while  others  are 
soluble  only  at  the  point  of  ebullition.  The  best  glue  is 
generally  admitted  to  be  transparent,  and  of  a  brown  yellow 
color,  without  either  taste  or  smell.  It  is  perfectly  soluble  in 
water,  forming  a  viscous  fluid,  which,  when  dry,  preserves  its 
tenacity  and  transparency  in  everj^  part ;  and  has  solidity 
color,  and  viscidity,  in  proportion  to  the  age  and  strength  of 
the  animal  from  which  it  is  produced.  To  distinguish  good 
glue  from  bad,  it  is  necessary  to  hold  it  between  the  eye  and 
light ;  and  if  it  appears  of  a  strong  dark  brown  color,  and 
free  from  cloudy  or  black  spots,  it  may  be  pronounced   to  be 


TERMS    USED    IN    CARPENTRY.  61 

good.  The  best  glue  may  likewise  be  known  by  immersing 
it  in  cold  water  for  three  or  four  days,  and  if  it  swells 
considerably  without  melting,  and  afterwards  regains  its 
former  dimensions  and  properties  by  being  dried,  the  article 
is  of  the  best  quality. 

In  preparing  glue  for  use,  it  should  be  softened  and  swelled 
by  steeping  it  in  cold  water  for  a  number  of  hours.  It  should 
then  be  dissolved,  by  gently  boiling  it  till  it  is  of  a  proper 
consistence  to  be  easily  brushed  over  any  surface.  A  portion 
of  water  is  added  to  glue,  to  make  it  of  a  proper  consistency, 
which  portion  may  be  taken  at  about  a  quart  of  water  to 
half  a  pound  of  glue.  In  order  to  hinder  the  glue  from  being 
burned,  during  the  process  of  boiling,  the  vessel  containing 
the  glue  is  generally  suspended  in  another  vessel,  which  is 
made  of  copper,  and  resembles  in  form  a  tea-kettle  without  a 
spout.  This  latter  vessel  contains  only  water,  and  alone 
receives  the  direct  influence  of  the  fire. 

A  little  attention  to  the  following  circumstances  w^ill  tend, 
in  no  small  degree,  to  give  glue  its  full  effect  in  uniting 
perfectly  two  pieces  of  wood  :  first,  that  the  glue  be  thorough- 
ly melted,  and  used  while  boiling  hot ;  secondly,  that  the 
wood  be  perfectly  dry  and  warm  ;  and,  lastly,  that  the  surfaces 
to  be  united  should  be  covered  only  with  a  thin  coat  of  glue, 
and  after  having  been  strongly  pressed  together,  left  in  a 
moderately  warm  situation,  till  the  glue  is  completely  dry. 
When  it  so  happens  that  the  face  of  surfaces  to  be  glued 
cannot  be  conveniently  compressed  together  in  any  great 
degree,  they  should,  as  soon  as  besmeared  with  the  glue,  be 
rubbed  lengthwise,  one  on  the  other,  several  times,  in  order 
thereby  to  settle  them  close.  When  all  fhe  above  circum- 
stances cannot  be  combined  in  the  same  operation,  the  hotness 
of  the  glue  and  the  dryness  of  the  wood  should  at  all  events, 
be  attended  to. 

The  qualities  of  glue  are  often  impaired  by  frequent  melt- 
ings. This  may  be  known  to  be  the  case  when  it  becomes  of 
a  dark  and  almost  black  color ;  its  proper  color  being  a  light 


62  TERMS    USED   IN    CARPENTRY. 

ruddy  brown :  yet,  even  then,  it  may  be  restored,  by  boiling 
it  over  again,  refining  it,  and  adding  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
fresh ;  but  tlie  fresh  is  seldom  put  into  the  kettle  till  what  is 
in  it  has  been  purged  by  a  second  boiling. 

If  common  glue  be  melted  with  the  smallest  possible 
quantity  of  water,  and  well  mixed  by  degrees  with  linseed 
oil,  rendered  .dry  by  boiling  it  with  litharge,  a  glue  may  be 
obtained  that  will  not  dissolve  in  water.  By  boiling  common 
glue  in  skimmed  milk  the  same  effect  may  be  produced. 

A  small  portion  of  finely  levigated  chalk  is  sometimes 
added  to  the  common  solution  of  glue  in  water,  to  strengthen 
it  and  fit  it  for  standing  the  weather. 

A  glue  that  will  resist  both  fire  and  water  may  be  prepared 
by  mixing  a  handful  of  quick  lime  with  four  ounces  of  linseed 
oil,  thoroughly  levigated,  and  then  boiled  to  a  good  thickness, 
and  kept  in  the  shade,  on  tin-plates,  to  dry.  It  may  be 
rendered  fit  for  use  by  boiling  it  over  a  fire  like  common 
glue. 

Grind  Stone. — A  cylindrical  stone,  by  which,  on  its  being 
turned  round  its  axis,  edgetools  are  sharpened,  by  applying 
the  basil  to  the  convex  surface. 

Ground-Plate  or  Sill. — The  lt)west  plate  of  a  wooden 
building  for  supporting  the  principal  and  other  posts. 

Grounds. — Pieces  of  wood  concealed  in  a  wall,  to  which 
the  facings  or  finishings  are  attached,  and  having  their  surfa- 
ces flush  with  the  plaster. 

Handspike. — A  lever  for  carrying  a  beam,  or  other  body, 
the  weights  being  placed  in  the  middle,  and  supported  at 
each  end  by  a  man. 

Hanging  Stile. — The  stile  of  a  door  or  shutter  to  which 
the  hinge  is  fastened  :  also,  a  narrow  stile  fixed  to  the  jamb 
on  which  a  door  or  shutter  is  frequently  hung. 

Hip-RooF. — A  roof  the  ends  of  which  rise  immediately 
from  the  wall-plate,  with  the  same  inclination  to  the  horizon, 
and  its  other  two  sides.     The  Backing  of  a  Hip  is  the  angle 


TERMS    USED   IN    CARPENTRY. 


63 


made  on  its  upper  edge  to  the  range  with  the  two  sides  or 
planes  of  the  roof  between  which  it  is  placed. 

Hoarding. — An  enclosure  of  wood  about  a  building,  while 
erecting  or  repairing. 

Jack  Rafters. — All  those  short  rafters  which  meet  the 
hips. 

Jack  Ribs. — Those  short  ribs  vi,  hich  meet  the  angle  ribs,  as 
in  groins,  domes,  etc. 

Jack  Timber. — A  timber  shorter  than  the  whole  length  of 
other  pieces  in  the  same  range. 

Inter-tie  or  Enter-tie. — A  horizontal  piece  of  timber, 
framed  between  two  posts,  in  order  to  tie  them  together. 

Joggle-Piece — A  truss  post,  with  shoulders  and  sockets  for 
abutting  and  fixing  the  lower  ends  of  the  struts. 

Joists. — Those  beams  in  a  floor  which  support,  or  are 
necessary  in  the  supporting,  of  the  boarding  or  ceiling ;  as  the 
binding,  hridging  and  ceiling  joists  j  girders  are,  however,  to 
be  excepted,  as  not  being  joists. 

JuFFERS. — Stuff  of  about  four  or  five  inches  square,  and  of 
several  lengths.  This  term  is  out  of  use,  though  frequently 
found  in  old  books. 

Kerf. — The  way  whicti  -ft  saw  makes  in  dividing  a  piece  of 
wood  into  two  parts. 

King-Post. — The  middle  post  of  a  trussed  roof,  for  sup- 
porting the  tie-beam  at  the  middle  and  the  lower  ends  of  the 
struts. 

Knee. — A  piece  of  timber  cut  at  an  angle,  or  having 
grooves  to  an  angle.  In  handrailing  a  knee  is  part  of  the 
back,  with  a  convex  curvature,  and  therefore  the  reverse  of  a 
rmnp,  which  is  hollow  on  the  back,  now  called  over  or  under 


Knot. — That  part  of  a  piece  of  timber  where  a  branch  had 
issued  out  of  the  trunk. 

Lining  of  a  Wall.^ — A  timber  boarding,  of  which  the 
edges  are  either  rebated  or  grooved  ai^d  tongued. 


64  TEEMS    USED   IN    CARPENTKY. 

Lintels. — Short  beams  over  the  heads  of  doors  and 
windows,  for  supporting  the  inside  of  an  exterior  wall ;  and 
the  super-incumbent  part  over  doors,  in  brick  or  stone  parti- 
tions. 

Lower  Eail. — The  rail  at  the  foot  of  a  door  next  to  the 
floor. 

Lying  Panel. — A  panel  with  the  fibres  of  the  wood 
disposed  horizontally. 

Margins  or  Margents. — The  flat  part  of  the  stiles  and 
rails  of  framed  work. 

Middle  Rail. — The  rail  of  a  door  which  is  upon  a  level 
with  the  hand  when  hanging  freely  and  bending  the  joint  of 
the  wrist.     The  lock  of  the  door  is  generally  fixed  in  this  rail. 

Mitre. — If  two  pieces  of  wood  be  formed  to  equal  angles, 
or  if  the  two  sides  of  each  piece  form  an  equal  inclination 
and  two  sides,  one  of  each  piece,  be  joined  together  at  their 
common  vertex,  so  as  to  make  an  angle,  or  an  inclination, 
double  to  that  of  either  piece,  they  are  said  to  be  mitred 
together,  and  the  joint  is  called  the  miti'e. 

Mortise  and  Tenon. — The  tenon,  in  general,  may  be  taken 
at  about  one-third  of  the  thickness  of  the  stuff". 

When  the  mortise  and  tenon  are  to  lie  horizontally,  as  the 
juncture  will  thus  be  unsupported,  the  tenon  should  not  be 
more  than  one-fifth  of  the  thickness  of  the  stuff*;  in  order 
that  the  strain  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tenoned  piece  may 
not  split  off*  the  under  clieek  of  the  mortise. 

When  the  piece  that  is  tenoned  is  not  to  pass  the  end  of 
the  mortised  piece,. the  tenon  should  be  reduced  one-third  or 
one-fourth  of  its  breadth,  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  opening 
one  side  of  the  tenon.  As  there  is  always  some  danger  of 
splitting  the  end  of  the  piece  in  which  the  mortise  is  made, 
the  end  beyond  the  morti^ie  should,  as  often  as  possible,  be 
made  considerably  longer  than  it  is  intended  to  remain ;  so 
that  the  tenon  may  be  driven  tightly  in,  and  the  superfluous 
wood  cut  off  afterwards. 


TERMS   USED   IN    CARFENTRY.  65 

But  the  above  regulations  may  be  varied,  according  as  the 
tenoned  or  mortised  piece  is  weaker  or  stronger. 

The  labor  of  making  deep  mortises,  in  hard  wood,  maybe 
lessened,  by  first  boring  a  number  of  holes  with  the  auger, 
in  the  part  to  be  mortised,  as  the  compartments  between  may 
then  more  easily  be  cut  away  ])y  the  chisp]. 

Before  employing  the  saw  to  cut  the  shoulder  of  a  tenon, 
in  neat  work,  if  the  line  of  its  entrance  be  correctly  deter- 
mined by  nicking  the  place  with  a  paring  chisel,  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  the  wood  being  torn  at  the  edges  by  the  saw. 

As  the  neatness  and  durability  of  a  juncture  depend 
entirely  on  the  sides  of  the  mortise  coming  exactly  in  contact 
with  the  sides  of  the  tenon  ;  and,  as  this  is  not  easily  per- 
formed when  a  mortise  is  to  pass  entirely  through  a  piece  of 
stuff,  the  space  allotted  for  it  should  be  first  of  all  correctly 
gauged  on  both  sides.  One-half  is  then  to  be  cut  from  one 
side,  and  the  other  half  from  the  opposite  side ;  and  as  any 
irregularities  which  may  arise  from  an  error  in  the  direction 
of  the  chisel,  will  thus  be  confined  to  the  middle  of  the  mor- 
tise, they  will  be  of  very  little  hindrance  to  the  exact  fitting 
of  the  sides  of  the  mortise  and  tenon.  Moreover  as  the 
tenon  is  expanded  by  wedges  after  it  is  driven  in,  the  sides  of 
the  mortise  may,  in  a  small  degree,  be  inclined  towards  each 
other,  near  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon. 

MuLLioN  OR  MuNNiON. — A  large  vertical  bar  of  a  window- 
frame,  separating  two  casements,  or  glass-frames,  from  each 
other. 

Yerticle  Tmdiions  ^ire  called  munwi^ons  ;  and  those  which  ex- 
tend horizontally  are  trani^oins. 

MuNTiNS  OR  MoNTANTS — The  vcrticlc  pieces  of  the  frame 
of  a  door  between  the  stiles. 

I^AKED  Flooring. — The  timber-work  of  a  floor  for  su'pport- 
ing  the  boarding,  or  ceiling,  or  both. 

Kewel. — The  post,  in  dog-legged  stairs,  where  the  winders 
terminate,  and  to  which  the  adjacent  string-boards  are  fixed. 

9 


6G  TERMS    USED    IN    CARPENTRY. 

Ogee. — A  moulding,  the  transverse  section  of  which  con- 
sists of  two  curves  of  contrary  flexure. 

Panel. — A  thin  board,  having  all  its  edges  inserted  in  the 
groove  of  a  surrounding  frame. 

Pitch  of  a  Eoof. — The  inclination  which  the  sloping  sides 
make  with  the  plane,  or  level  of  the  wall-plate ;  or  it  is  the 
proportion  which  arises  by  dividing  the  span  by  the  height. 
Thus,  if  it  be  asked,  What  is  the  pitch  of  such  a  roof?  the 
answer  is,  one-quarter,  one-third,  or  half.  AVhen  the  pitch  is 
lialf,  the  roof  is  a  square,  which  is  the  highest  that  is  now  in 
use,  or  that  is  necessary  in  practice. 

Plank. — All  boards  above  one  inch  thick  are  called  planhn. 

Plate. — A  horizontal  piece  of  timber  iii  a  wall,  generally 
flush  with  the  inside,  for  resting  the  ends  of  beams,  joists  or 
rafters,  upon ;  and,  therefore,  denominated  floor  or  roof 
plates. 

Posts. — All  upright  or  vertical  pieces  of  timber  whatever  ; 
as  trus8-jposts^  door-posts^  quarters  in  partitions,  etc. 

Brick  Posts.— Intermediate  posts  in  a  wooden  building, 
framed  between  principal  posts. 

Principal  Posts. — The  corner  posts  of  a  wooden  building. 

PuDLAiES. — Pieces  of  timber  to  serve  the  purpose  of  hand- 
spikes. 

PuNCHioNS.^Any  short  post  of  timber.  The  small  quar- 
terings  in  a  stud  partition  above  the  head  of  a  door,  are  also 
called  Punchions. 

Purlins. — The  horizontal  timbers  in  the  sides  of  a  roof, 
for  supporting  the  spars  or  small  rafters. 

QuARTERiNtf. — The  stud  w^ork  of  a  partition. 

Quarters. — The  timbers  to  be  used  in  stud  partitions,  bond 

in  walls,  etc. 

Rafters. — All  the  inclined  timbers  in  the  sides  of  a  roof; 

Si^prineipal  rafters^  hip  rafters,  and  common  rafters;  the  latter 

are  called  in  most  countries,  spars. 

Pails. — The  horizontal  pieces  which  contain  the  tenons  in 


TEEMS    USED   IN   CARPENTRY.  67 

a  piece  of  framing,  in  whicli  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of 
the  panels  are  inserted. 

Raising  Plates  or  Top  Plates. — The  plates  on  which  the 
roof  is  raised. 

Rank-set. — The  edge  of  the  iron  of  a  plane  is  said  to  be 
rank-set  when  it  projects  considerably  below  the  sole. 

Return. — In  any  body  with  two  surfaces,  joining  each 
other  at  an  angle,  one  of  the  surfaces  is  said  to  return  in 
respect  of  the  other;  or,  if  standing  before  one  surface,  so 
that  the  e^^e  may  be  in  a  straight  line  with  the  other,  or 
nearly  so ;  this  last  is  said  to  return. 

Ridge. — The  meeting  of  the  rafters  on  the  vertical  angle, 
or  highest  part  of  a  roof. 

Risers. — The  verticle  sides  of  the  steps  of  stairs. 

Roof. — The  covering  of  a  house ;  but  the  word  is  used  in 
carpentry  for  the  wood-work  which  supports  the  slating  or 
other  covering. 

Scantling. — The  transverse  dimensions  of  a  piece  of  tim- 
ber ;  sometimes,  also  the  small  timbers  in  roofing  and 
flooring  are  called  scantling Ss 

Scarfing. — A  mode  of  joining  two  pieces  of  timber,  by 
bolting  or  nailing  them  transversely  together,  so  that  the  two 
appear  but  as  one.  The  joint  is  called  a  scarfs  and  timbers 
are  said  to  be  scarfed. 

Shaken  Stuff. — Such  timber  as  is  rent  or  split  by  the 
heat  of  tlie  sun,  or  by  the  fall  of  the  tree,  is  said  to  be 
slujiken. 

Shingles. — Thin  pieces  of  wood  used  for  covering,  instead 
of  tiles,  etc. 

Shreadings. — A  term  not  much  used  at  present. 

Skirtings  or  Skirting  Boards. — The  narrow  boards 
around  the  margin  of  a  floor,  forming  a  plinth  for  the  base 
of  the  dado.,  or  simply  a  plinth  for  the  room  itself,  when 
there  is  no  dado. 

Skirts  of  a  Roof. — The  projecture  of  the  eaves. 

Sleepers. — Pieces  of  timber  for  resting  the  ground-joists 


6S  TEEMS    USED    IN    CARPENTRY. 

of  a  floor  upon,  or  for  fixing  the  planking  to,  in  a  bad  founda- 
tion. The  term  formerly  applied  to  the  valley  rafters  of  a 
roof. 

Spars. — A  term  by  which  the  common  rafters  of  a  roof 
are  best  known  in  almost  every  provincial  town  in  Great 
Britain;  though,  generally,  called  in  London  common  rafters^ 
in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  principal  rafters. 

Staff. — A  piece  of  wood  fixed  to  the  external  angle  of 
the  two  upright  sides  of  a  wall,  for  floating  the  plaster  to, 
and  for  defending  the  angle  against  accidents. 

Stiles  of  Door,  are  the  verticled  arts  of  the  framing  at 
the  edges  of  the  door. 

Struts. — Pieces  of  timber  which  support  the  rafters,  and 
which  are  supported  by  the  truss-posts. 

Summer. — A  large  beam  in  a  building,  either  disposed  in 
an  outside  wall,  or  in  the  middle  of  an  apartment,  parallel 
to  such  wall.  When  a  summer  is  placed  under  a  superin- 
cumbent part  of  an  outside  wall,  it  is  called  a  hressummer^  as 
it  comes  in  abrest  with  the  front  of  the  building. 

SuRBASE. — The  upper  base  of  a  room,  or  rather  the  cornice 
of  the  pedestal  of  the  room,  which  serves  to  finish  the  dado, 
and  to  secure  the  plaster  against  accidents  from  the  back  of 
chairs  and  other  furniture  on  the  same  level. 

Taper. — The  form  of  a  piece  of  wood  which  arises  from 
one  end  of  a  piece  being  narrower  than  the  other. 

Tenon. — See  Mortise. 

Tie. — A  piece  of  timber,  placed  in  any  position,  and 
acting  as  a  string  or  tie,  to  keep  two  things  together  which 
have  a  tendency  to  a  more  remote  distance  form  each  other. 

Transom  Windows. — Those  windows  which  have  horizon- 
tal mullions. 

Trimmers. — Joists  into  which  other  joists  are  framed. 

Trimming  Joists. — The  two  joists  into  which  a  trimmer 
is  framed. 

Truncated  Roof. — A  roof  with  a  flat  on  the  top. 

"Truss. — A  frame  constructed  of  several  pieces  of  timber. 


TERMS    USED    IN   CARPENTRY.  69 


and  divided  into  two  or  more  triangles  bj  oblique  pieces,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  its  revolving  round  any  of 
the  angles  of  the  frame. 

Trussed  Roof. — A  roof  so  constructed  within  the  exterior 
triangular  frame,  as  to  support  the  principal  rafters  and  the 
tie-beam  at  certain  given  points. 

Truss-Post. — Any  of  the  posts  of  a  trussed  roof,  as  a  king- 
post, qiieen-post,  or  side-post,  or  posts  into  which  the  braces 
are  formed  in  a  trussed  partition. 

Trussells. — Four-legged  stools  for  ripping  and  cross-cut- 
ting timber  upon. 

Tusk. — The  bevelled  upper  shoulder  of  a  tenon,  made  in 
order  to  give  streno^th  to  the  tenon. 

Uphers. — Fir-poles,  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  long,  and 
from  four  to  seven  inuhes  in  diameter,  commonly  hewn  on 
the  sides,  so  as  not  to  reduce  the  wane  entirely.  When  slit 
they  are  frequently  employed  in  slight  roofs  :  but  mostly  used 
whole  for  scaffolding  and  ladders. 

Yalley  Kafter. — That  rafter  which  is  disposed  in  the 
internal  angle  of  a  roof. 

Wall  Plates. — The  joint-plates  and  raising  plates. 

Web  of  an  Iron. — The  board  part  of  it  which  comes  to 
the  sole  of  the  plane. 


70 


PLASTERER'S  WORK. 

The  measuring  and  valuation  of  plasterer's  work  is  con- 
ducted by  surveyors.  All  common  plastering  is  measured 
by  the  yard  square,  of  nine  feet ;  this  includes  the  partitions 
and  ceilings  of  rooms,  stuccoing,  internally  and  externally, 
etc.,  etc.  Cornices  are  measured  by  the  foot  superficial, 
girting  their  members  to  ascertain  their  widths,  which  multi- 
plied by  their  lengths,  will  produce  the  superficial  contents. 
Eunning  measures  consist  of  beads,  quirks,  arrises,  and  small 
mouldings.  Ornamental  cornices  are  frequently  valued  in 
this  way ;  that  is,  by  the  running  foot. 

The  labor  in  plasterer's  work  is  frequently  of  more  consider- 
ation than  the  materials  ;  hence  it  becomes  requisite  to  note 
down  the  exact  time  which  is  consumed  in  effecting  particular 
portions,  so  that  an  adequate  and  proper  value  may  be  put 
upon  the  work. 


"S6l|eriof"--It^  >ieki^in^. 


Of  old,  the  wise  man  said  :  "There  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun."  Each 
succeeding  age  has  echoed  it — even  this  nineteenth  century,  perforce,  joining 
the  strain. 

Do  we  chant  our  triumph  in  art,  in  science ;  do  we  exult  in  the  advance  in 
the  science  of  government — hailing  the  "  rings  "  that  govern  us,  and  plunder 
us,  as  the  very  last  and  greatest  achievement  in  hiunan  progress  ;  turn  back  the 
pages  of  history  and  we  find  a  record  which  compels  us  to  say,  "  The  thing 
that  is,  it  is  that  that  has  been." 

"What  wonder,  then,  if  even  this  boast  of  our  age,  the  self- feeding  principle  as 
applied  to  Furnaces,  &c.,  should  have  been  known  and  used  by  them  of  old ! 

And  we  so  read  of  a  "Furnace,  1800  years  ago,  having  a  tower  or  magazine 
suspended  over  the  fire-chamber,  for  the  purpose  of  furnii-'hinga  constant  sup- 
ply of  fuel,  tlms  obtaining  a  perpetual  fire." 

Hence  it  was  called,  in  the  Greek,  "  Athanor."  "Acanor,"  or  "Achenor," 
signifying  "deathless,"  "undying." 

But  herein  is  a  difi'erence  between  us  and  those  of  the  bygone  days,  and  one 
which  well  illustrates  the  difference  in  our  civilization. 

The  old  Achenor  Furnaces  were  used  by  the  alchemists,  in  their  vain  eflTorts 
to  transmute  the  baser  metals  into  gold — in  their  fruitless  search  after  the 
"philosopher's  stone." 

The  new  Achenor  Furnaces  seek  the  promotion  of  health  of  mind,  and  well- 
being  of  body,  a  treasure  richer  far  than  the"  Midas  "  power  sought  of  old. 

It  is,  then,  an  "  old  friend  with  a  new  face  "  we  present  in 

HE  ^CHENOR  JuRNACES, 

and  we  are  confident  that  they  will  inherit  the  name  because 

1.  An  undying  fire  can  be  kept; 

2.  They  are  entirely  free  from  deadly  gases ; 

3.  Their  career,  we  believe,  will  be  undying. 


This  matter  of  heating  our  homes  is  of  such  vital  importance  that  we  feel 
warranted  in  presenting  in  detail  the  more  important  features  of  the  Achenor 
Furnaces,  premising  that  they  are  not  an  untested  experiment,  but  a  tried  and 
successful  fact. 

FOR    SALE    BY 

W.  H.  DRUMMOND&  CO., 

85  and  87  MARKET  ST.,  NEWARK,  N.  J. 


G^ould'^  f^kte-qt  J^ii^e-f^i^oof  Sot  ^it  J^]ne><, 

FOR    BUILDING-S,    <fec.,    &c. 
NO  IRON  LATHES  NOR  COMPLICATED  CONTRIVANCES  REQUIRED. 

Absolutely  Fire-Proof— No  Loss  of  Heat. 


The  invention  consists  in  a  combination  of  sheet  tin  tubes  with  Plaster  of  Paris,  the 
tubes  forming  the  lining  of  the  manufactured  article  when  completed.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  combination  of  the  plate-tin  and  Plaster  of  Paris  is  based  upon  sound  scientific 
principles,  when  it  is  understood  that  the  object  of  the  invention  is  to  prevent  escape  of 
the  heat  through  the  walls  of  the  flues  during  the  passage  of  the  heated  air  from  the 
furnace  to  the  delivery  register.  Bright  plate-tin,  though  a  good  reflector,  is  a  very  poor 
radiator  of  heat  while  Plaster  of  Paris  is  one  of  the  best  non-conductors. 

The  engravings  will  almost  explain  themselves.  They  represent  one  of  the  forms  in 
which  the  flues  may  be  made,  these  forms  being  practically  unlimited,  and  capable  of 
adaption  to  any  of  the  requirements  of  such  flues.  Fig.  1  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  com- 
posite register  box,  and  Fig.  2  is  a  geometrical  section  of  the  same,  in  which  the  shape  of 
the  tin  lining  in  transverse  section  is  that  of  a  flattened  cylinder.  The  sections  of  tin  are 
much  larger  at  one  end  than  at  the  other  :  they  can,  therefore,  be  joined  without  crack- 
ing the  plaster  which  is  upon  the  outside.  These  tubes  can  be  made  so  cheaply,  and  they 
are  evidently  such  perfect  security  against  fire  originating  in  flues,  that  they  ought  to 
attract  the  attention  of  builders  at  once.  It  is  also  in  harmony  with  the  Building  Laws 
of  the  State  New  York,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  extract  : 

Extract  from  Laws  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  relation  to  Building. 

HoT-AiB  Pipes— No  tin  or  other  metal  pipes  or  flues  of  metal,  to  convey  heated  air, 
shall  be  allowed,  unless  the  same  shall  have  a  thickness  of  not  less  than  one  inch  of 
Plaster  of  Paris  between  the  said  metal  pipes  or  flues,  and  any  of  the  timber  of  wood-work 
adjoining  the  same  If  the  Plaster  of  Paris  is  not  put  on  as  above  set  forth,  the  pipes  in 
all  cases,  must  be  doubled,  that  is  to  pipes,  one  inside  the  other,  at  least  one  inch  apart 
and  filled  with  Plaster  of  Paris. 

REFERENCES : 


R.  P.  VAN  RIPER,  Montclair, 

J.  R.  THOMPSON,  Office  Warren  st. 

Jersey  City,  Residence,  Montclair, 
JEROME  SIGLER,  Montclair, 
A.  A.  SIGLER,  Montclair, 
FRED.  BRAUTIGAN.  Montclair, 


H.    HUDSON   HOLLY,  Architect,    Trinity 

Buildings,  N.  Y. 
JOSEPH  DODD,  Architect,  Orange, 
THOMAS  STENT,  Architect,  Newark. 
C.  GRAHAM,  Architect,  Elizabeth. 
BRIGGS  &  COIMAN,  Architects,  Newark. 


HUGH  LAMB,  Architect,  Newark. 


:e=:fi.ioes. 


3x8  Inches,  per  Foot  80  Cts. 
3x9  "  "        85    " 


3xlO  Inches,  per  Foot         90 
3x13  "        "  Sl.OO 


Register  Boxes  ready  to  receive  Register  according  to  size,  either  for  Side  Wall  or  Floor. 
No  Soapstone  Border  required  when  these  boxes  are  used.    Address  all  orders  to 

E.  T.  GOULD,  Montclair,  N.  J. 


w 

o 

I \ 

< 

pq 


p 

o 
o 


*-:, 


P5 
W 

o 
w 
p 

w 

O 


z 

< 


< 

w 

I — I 
Ph 


<  % 


w, 

^ 


o 

O 

o 


^  in 

w  < 

o  w 

Q 

PQ  << 


O 

PLh 


00 

Q 

< 


OQ 

pq 


X 


pc; 
o 

d 


pq 


OBIVAME^TAL  IVEWEL  POSTS  AI¥D  BALUSTERS  MADE  TO  ORDER. 


JOHN    MIDDLETON, 

Stair  Builder, 

10.  im  BEieil  ST.,  lEWIlI,  1,  J. 


Stairs  and    Rails  Executed  with    Neatness  and  Dispatch. 

ORDERS  BY  MAIL  PROMPTLY  ATTENDED  TO. 


COMBINED,    ELECTRIC,    BURGLAR    AND    FIRE 

IS   SIMPLE,    PlSRFEGT   AND    GUARANTEED, 
UllJSr    BE    SEEN    TO    BE   AI»I»RECIATEI>. 

No  charge  made  until  after  a  trial.    Is  put  In  quickly,  no  carpets  taken  up.    It  costs  less 
than  any  other  Alarm  in  the  market— Is  very  popular. 

Call  and  see  it,  or  address  for  purlieu  farsj 

3FL-  J".    :B:E=^iTT^^iJxr, 

IVo.  120  Bergen  St.,  Newark,  ]\.  J. 

Our  Batteries  are  not  offensive,  and  last  one  year  without  attention. 
COST  30  CTS.  PER  ANNUM. 


p00iIlB0rliiig« 


SMITH'S 

For  Planing,  Sash,  and  Moulding  Mills, 

LOW  PRICES, 

SUPERIOR  QUALITY, 

EASY   TERMS. 

—ALSO— 

.ewa^fej^n.,   MACHINISTS'  TOOLS. 

Scroll  Saw. 

STEAM   ENGINES,  BOILERS,  SHAFTING, 

AND    COMPLETE   OUTFITS    FOR    FACTORIES. 

WRIGHT  &  SMITH, 

Warerooms,  119  Liberty  Street,  New  York. 
FACTORY,  NEWARK,  N.  J.  SEND  FOR  CIRCULARS. 


MEEKER  &   HEDDEN, 

SASH,    BLIND    AND    DOOR     MANUFACTURERS, 

Hardwood  Doors,  Mantels,  Church,  Bank  and  Office  Furniture, 

WOOD     MOULDINGS, 

^dfoll    ai)d    Cii^dulaf    ^awii^g,   Wood    ^I^ui'iiiii^,    &C.,   M., 

OGDEN    STREET,    FOOT    OF    ORANGE, 

J.J.MEEKER,   I  NEWARK     N     J 

V.  J.  HEDDEN.   r  INQVVMnrX,     IN.    J. 


ROMER    &    CO., 

xMAXUFACTURERS  OF 

Builders  and  Bronze  Hardware, 

OF   EVERY  DESCRIPTION.      ALSO, 

Piano,  Melodeon  and  Sewing  Machine  Locks,  Brass  and  Composition  Castings 

Made  to  Order, 

141    AND    145    RAILROAD    AVENUE, 

f.I:4\li^r'\  X^WSI^i^,  X.  J. 


SCRIMSHAW   PAVEMENT 

S^oi'  gti^eet^,  dki^rik^e  Sou^^e^  ki|d  f)i4ve^, 

STABLE  FLOORS,  SIDE  AND  GARDEN  WALKS, 

It  is  now  admitted  to  be  the  best  Pavement  in  use.     See  the  Pavement  in  front  of   the 
Industrial  Exhibition  Buildings.    Call  for  testimonials,  and  leave  orders  at  the 

Offide,  ^66  81'oad  ^^tfeet,  JVfewafk,  }!,  J. 
ALSO,  BUELL'S  IMPROVED  ARTIFICIAL  STONE- 

J^.  F.  CORY. 


E.    B.    HIOTOHIKIISS, 

MANUFACTURER  OF 

PAPER     BOXES. 

OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION,  ALSO  DEALER  IN 

Papei^,  fhi\6y  8oxe^,  Pa^^te  BokM^,  ai)d  '^h^6y  Sftidle^, 
878  AND  880  BROAD  STREET, 

NEWARK,      N.      J. 


UNION'S  TILES, 

PLAIN  AND  ENCAUSTIC, 

AS  LAID  BY  US  IN 

THE   CAPITOL   AT  WASHINGTON, 

In  numerous  Churches,  Banks,  and  Dwellings 
in  every  part  of  the  country. 

Glazed  and  Enameled  Tiles 

For  Mantels,  Hearths,  "Wainscoting,  &c. 
and  for  Exterior  Decoration. 

PLUMBERS'  MATERIALS,  &c. 

MILLER  &COATES, 

379  Pearl  Street, 

NEW  YORK. 


A.  S.  CARLE, 

And  Scroll  Sawing  Mills, 
NEWARK,  N.J. 


Circular  Mouldings  a  Specialty,  any 
size  up  to  12  feet. 

^taif  kiid  ^too|)  S^ti^tef^, 

Newels,  Shelf  Columns,  Line  and  Hitch- 
ing Posts,  Constantly  on  Hand. 

All  kinds  of  Work  done  at  Short  Notice. 

Orders  may  be  left  at  Builders'  Ex- 
change, 847  Broad  St. 


ESTABLISHED  IN  1848. 


MACKNET,  WILSON  &  CO., 

IMPORTERS  AND  DEALERS  IN 

ariwaret  |[r0tt  ai|J  Sif e 


IICIIIE  BELTIIG,  STMl  PlCIIiC,  &C. 

^UILDEF(^'  J-fy^RDW^RJE  A  ^PECIALTY, 

JSTo.  796  SrocLd  Street, 


NEWARK,  N.  J 


THEO.   MACKNET, 
THOS.   B.    SMITH, 


ORSON  "WILSON, 
ELI  AS   B.    CRANE. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


RENEWED  BOOKS  ARE  SUBJECT  TO  IMMEDIAH 
RECALL 


RECF'V^-^ 
FEB  1  6  1981 

EHYS  .SCI  L-» t^»*.-*%  i 

FEB  15^989 

DEC  1  5  \m 


WIAR  ll 


PHYS 


era 


r>.  r»  A  » V 


LIBRARY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  DAVIS 

Book  Slip-50m-5,'70(N6725s8) 458 — A-31/5 


3   1175  00461    2381 


ize^^lh 


Gould,   L.D, 

The  carpenter's  and 
builder's  assistant. 


Call  Number: 

TH5605 
G67 


N9   736874 


Gould,  L.D. 

The  carpenter's  and 
builder's  assistant. 


TH5605 
G67 


k 


PHYSICAL 
SCIENCES 
LIBRARY 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

DAVIS 


